(eBook PDF) Optics 5th Edition by Eugene Hecht
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,OPTICS
F I F T H E D I T I O N
EUGENE HECHT
, 1 A Brief History
1.1 Prolegomenon pointed out that a glass globe filled with water could be used
for magnifying purposes. And it is certainly possible that some
In chapters to come we will evolve a formal treatment of much Roman artisans may have used magnifying glasses to facilitate
of the science of Optics, with particular emphasis on aspects of very fine detailed work.
contemporary interest. The subject embraces a vast body of After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (475 c.e.), which
knowledge accumulated over roughly three thousand years of the roughly marks the start of the Dark Ages, little or no scientific
human scene. Before embarking on a study of the modern view progress was made in Europe for a great while. The dominance
of things optical, let’s briefly trace the road that led us there, if of the Greco-Roman-Christian culture in the lands embracing the
for no other reason than to put it all in perspective. Mediterranean soon gave way by conquest to the rule of Allah.
The center of scholarship shifted to the Arab world.
Refraction was studied by Abu Sa`d al-`Ala’ Ibn Sahl (940–
1000 c.e.), who worked at the Abbasid court in Baghdad, where
1.2 In the Beginning he wrote On the Burning Instruments in 984. His accurate dia-
grammatical illustration of refraction, the first ever, appears in
The origins of optical technology date back to remote antiqui- that book. Ibn Sahl described both parabolic and ellipsoidal burn-
ty. Exodus 38:8 (ca. 1200 b.c.e.) recounts how Bezaleel, while ing mirrors and analyzed the hyperbolic plano-convex lens, as
preparing the ark and tabernacle, recast “the looking-glasses of well as the hyperbolic biconvex lens. The scholar Abu Ali al-
the women” into a brass laver (a ceremonial basin). Early mir- Hasan ibn al-Haytham (965–1039), known in the Western world
rors were made of polished copper, bronze, and later on of as Alhazen, was a prolific writer on a variety of topics, including
speculum, a copper alloy rich in tin. Specimens have survived 14 books on Optics alone. He elaborated on the Law of Reflec-
from ancient Egypt—a mirror in perfect condition was un- tion, putting the angles of incidence and reflection in the same
earthed along with some tools from the workers’ quarters near plane normal to the interface (p. 99); he studied spherical and
the pyramid of Sesostris II (ca. 1900 b.c.e.) in the Nile valley. parabolic mirrors and gave a detailed description of the human
The Greek philosophers Pythagoras, Democritus, Empedocles, eye (p. 207). Anticipating Fermat, Alhazen suggested that light
Plato, Aristotle, and others developed several theories of the travels the fastest path through a medium.
nature of light. The rectilinear propagation of light (p. 91) was By the latter part of the thirteenth century, Europe was only
known, as was the Law of Reflection (p. 97) enunciated by Eu- beginning to rouse from its intellectual stupor. Alhazen’s work
clid (300 b.c.e.) in his book Catoptrics. Hero of Alexandria was translated into Latin, and it had a great effect on the writings
attempted to explain both these phenomena by asserting that of Robert Grosseteste (1175–1253), Bishop of Lincoln, and on the
light traverses the shortest allowed path between two points. Polish mathematician Vitello (or Witelo), both of whom were in-
The burning glass (a positive lens used to start fires) was fluential in rekindling the study of Optics. Their works were
alluded to by Aristophanes in his comic play The Clouds known to the Franciscan Roger Bacon (1215–1294), who is con-
(424 b.c.e.). The apparent bending of objects partly immersed sidered by many to be the first scientist in the modern sense. He
in water (p. 105) is mentioned in Plato’s Republic. Refraction seems to have initiated the idea of using lenses for correcting
was studied by Cleomedes (50 c.e.) and later by Claudius Ptol- vision and even hinted at the possibility of combining lenses to
emy (130 c.e.) of Alexandria, who tabulated fairly precise form a telescope. Bacon also had some understanding of the way
measurements of the angles of incidence and refraction for in which rays traverse a lens. After his death, Optics again lan-
several media (p. 100). It is clear from the accounts of the his- guished. Even so, by the mid-1300s, European paintings were de-
torian Pliny (23–79 c.e.) that the Romans also possessed burn- picting monks wearing eyeglasses. And alchemists had come up
ing glasses. Several glass and crystal spheres have been found with a liquid amalgam of tin and mercury that was rubbed onto the
among Roman ruins, and a planar convex lens was recovered in back of glass plates to make mirrors. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–
Pompeii. The Roman philosopher Seneca (3 b.c.e.–65 c.e.) 1519) described the camera obscura (p. 220), later popularized by
1
M01_HECH7226_05_SE_C01_01-009.indd 1 09/11/15 5:43
, 2 Chapter 1 A Brief History
1.3 From the Seventeenth Century
It is not clear who actually invented the refracting telescope,
but records in the archives at The Hague show that on October
2, 1608, Hans Lippershey (1587–1619), a Dutch spectacle
maker, applied for a patent on the device. Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642), in Padua, heard about the invention and within
several months had built his own instrument (p. 227), grinding
the lenses by hand. The compound microscope was invented
at just about the same time, possibly by the Dutchman Zacha-
rias Janssen (1588–1632). The microscope’s concave eye-
piece was replaced with a convex lens by Francisco Fontana
(1580–1656) of Naples, and a similar change in the telescope
was introduced by Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). In 1611,
Kepler published his Dioptrice. He had discovered total inter-
nal reflection (p. 125) and arrived at the small angle approxi-
mation to the Law of Refraction, in which case the incident
and transmission angles are proportional. He evolved a treat-
Giovanni Battista Della Porta (1535–1615). (US National Library of Medicine)
ment of first-order Optics for thin-lens systems and in his
book describes the detailed operation of both the Keplerian
(positive eyepiece) and Galilean (negative eyepiece) tele-
scopes. Willebrord Snel (1591–1626), whose name is usually
the work of Giovanni Battista Della Porta (1535–1615), who dis- inexplicably spelled Snell, professor at Leyden, empirically
cussed multiple mirrors and combinations of positive and negative discovered the long-hidden Law of Refraction (p. 100) in
lenses in his Magia naturalis (1589). 1621—this was one of the great moments in Optics. By learn-
This, for the most part, modest array of events constitutes ing precisely how rays of light are redirected on traversing a
what might be called the first period of Optics. It was undoubt- boundary between two media, Snell in one swoop swung open
edly a beginning—but on the whole a humble one. The whirl- the door to modern applied Optics. René Descartes (1596–1650)
wind of accomplishment and excitement was to come later, in was the first to publish the now familiar formulation of the
the seventeenth century. Law of Refraction in terms of sines. Descartes deduced the
A very early picture of an outdoor European
village scene. The man on the left is selling
eyeglasses. (INTERFOTO/Alamy)
M01_HECH7226_05_SE_C01_01-009.indd 2 04/12/15 5:08
install download
https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-optics-5th-edition-by-
eugene-hecht/
Download more ebook instantly today - Get yours now at ebookluna.com
,OPTICS
F I F T H E D I T I O N
EUGENE HECHT
, 1 A Brief History
1.1 Prolegomenon pointed out that a glass globe filled with water could be used
for magnifying purposes. And it is certainly possible that some
In chapters to come we will evolve a formal treatment of much Roman artisans may have used magnifying glasses to facilitate
of the science of Optics, with particular emphasis on aspects of very fine detailed work.
contemporary interest. The subject embraces a vast body of After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (475 c.e.), which
knowledge accumulated over roughly three thousand years of the roughly marks the start of the Dark Ages, little or no scientific
human scene. Before embarking on a study of the modern view progress was made in Europe for a great while. The dominance
of things optical, let’s briefly trace the road that led us there, if of the Greco-Roman-Christian culture in the lands embracing the
for no other reason than to put it all in perspective. Mediterranean soon gave way by conquest to the rule of Allah.
The center of scholarship shifted to the Arab world.
Refraction was studied by Abu Sa`d al-`Ala’ Ibn Sahl (940–
1000 c.e.), who worked at the Abbasid court in Baghdad, where
1.2 In the Beginning he wrote On the Burning Instruments in 984. His accurate dia-
grammatical illustration of refraction, the first ever, appears in
The origins of optical technology date back to remote antiqui- that book. Ibn Sahl described both parabolic and ellipsoidal burn-
ty. Exodus 38:8 (ca. 1200 b.c.e.) recounts how Bezaleel, while ing mirrors and analyzed the hyperbolic plano-convex lens, as
preparing the ark and tabernacle, recast “the looking-glasses of well as the hyperbolic biconvex lens. The scholar Abu Ali al-
the women” into a brass laver (a ceremonial basin). Early mir- Hasan ibn al-Haytham (965–1039), known in the Western world
rors were made of polished copper, bronze, and later on of as Alhazen, was a prolific writer on a variety of topics, including
speculum, a copper alloy rich in tin. Specimens have survived 14 books on Optics alone. He elaborated on the Law of Reflec-
from ancient Egypt—a mirror in perfect condition was un- tion, putting the angles of incidence and reflection in the same
earthed along with some tools from the workers’ quarters near plane normal to the interface (p. 99); he studied spherical and
the pyramid of Sesostris II (ca. 1900 b.c.e.) in the Nile valley. parabolic mirrors and gave a detailed description of the human
The Greek philosophers Pythagoras, Democritus, Empedocles, eye (p. 207). Anticipating Fermat, Alhazen suggested that light
Plato, Aristotle, and others developed several theories of the travels the fastest path through a medium.
nature of light. The rectilinear propagation of light (p. 91) was By the latter part of the thirteenth century, Europe was only
known, as was the Law of Reflection (p. 97) enunciated by Eu- beginning to rouse from its intellectual stupor. Alhazen’s work
clid (300 b.c.e.) in his book Catoptrics. Hero of Alexandria was translated into Latin, and it had a great effect on the writings
attempted to explain both these phenomena by asserting that of Robert Grosseteste (1175–1253), Bishop of Lincoln, and on the
light traverses the shortest allowed path between two points. Polish mathematician Vitello (or Witelo), both of whom were in-
The burning glass (a positive lens used to start fires) was fluential in rekindling the study of Optics. Their works were
alluded to by Aristophanes in his comic play The Clouds known to the Franciscan Roger Bacon (1215–1294), who is con-
(424 b.c.e.). The apparent bending of objects partly immersed sidered by many to be the first scientist in the modern sense. He
in water (p. 105) is mentioned in Plato’s Republic. Refraction seems to have initiated the idea of using lenses for correcting
was studied by Cleomedes (50 c.e.) and later by Claudius Ptol- vision and even hinted at the possibility of combining lenses to
emy (130 c.e.) of Alexandria, who tabulated fairly precise form a telescope. Bacon also had some understanding of the way
measurements of the angles of incidence and refraction for in which rays traverse a lens. After his death, Optics again lan-
several media (p. 100). It is clear from the accounts of the his- guished. Even so, by the mid-1300s, European paintings were de-
torian Pliny (23–79 c.e.) that the Romans also possessed burn- picting monks wearing eyeglasses. And alchemists had come up
ing glasses. Several glass and crystal spheres have been found with a liquid amalgam of tin and mercury that was rubbed onto the
among Roman ruins, and a planar convex lens was recovered in back of glass plates to make mirrors. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–
Pompeii. The Roman philosopher Seneca (3 b.c.e.–65 c.e.) 1519) described the camera obscura (p. 220), later popularized by
1
M01_HECH7226_05_SE_C01_01-009.indd 1 09/11/15 5:43
, 2 Chapter 1 A Brief History
1.3 From the Seventeenth Century
It is not clear who actually invented the refracting telescope,
but records in the archives at The Hague show that on October
2, 1608, Hans Lippershey (1587–1619), a Dutch spectacle
maker, applied for a patent on the device. Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642), in Padua, heard about the invention and within
several months had built his own instrument (p. 227), grinding
the lenses by hand. The compound microscope was invented
at just about the same time, possibly by the Dutchman Zacha-
rias Janssen (1588–1632). The microscope’s concave eye-
piece was replaced with a convex lens by Francisco Fontana
(1580–1656) of Naples, and a similar change in the telescope
was introduced by Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). In 1611,
Kepler published his Dioptrice. He had discovered total inter-
nal reflection (p. 125) and arrived at the small angle approxi-
mation to the Law of Refraction, in which case the incident
and transmission angles are proportional. He evolved a treat-
Giovanni Battista Della Porta (1535–1615). (US National Library of Medicine)
ment of first-order Optics for thin-lens systems and in his
book describes the detailed operation of both the Keplerian
(positive eyepiece) and Galilean (negative eyepiece) tele-
scopes. Willebrord Snel (1591–1626), whose name is usually
the work of Giovanni Battista Della Porta (1535–1615), who dis- inexplicably spelled Snell, professor at Leyden, empirically
cussed multiple mirrors and combinations of positive and negative discovered the long-hidden Law of Refraction (p. 100) in
lenses in his Magia naturalis (1589). 1621—this was one of the great moments in Optics. By learn-
This, for the most part, modest array of events constitutes ing precisely how rays of light are redirected on traversing a
what might be called the first period of Optics. It was undoubt- boundary between two media, Snell in one swoop swung open
edly a beginning—but on the whole a humble one. The whirl- the door to modern applied Optics. René Descartes (1596–1650)
wind of accomplishment and excitement was to come later, in was the first to publish the now familiar formulation of the
the seventeenth century. Law of Refraction in terms of sines. Descartes deduced the
A very early picture of an outdoor European
village scene. The man on the left is selling
eyeglasses. (INTERFOTO/Alamy)
M01_HECH7226_05_SE_C01_01-009.indd 2 04/12/15 5:08
