Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination
1. Introduction: The Reality of Prejudice and Discrimination
• Prejudice and discrimination manifest in various contexts, affecting individuals
based on race, gender, nationality, religion, and other social categories.
• Prejudice involves negative emotional responses based on group
membership.
• Discrimination refers to differential (often negative) treatment based on
social group membership.
• Stereotyping refers to beliefs about what members of a particular group are
like.
Examples of Prejudice and Discrimination
• COVID-19 and Racism:
o March 2020: Chinese students in UK universities faced racist attacks
(verbal and physical), with mask-wearing increasing the likelihood of
discrimination.
o 2021: Australia banned its citizens from returning from India during a
COVID-19 surge, but not from other high-risk countries. Critics labeled
this a racist policy.
• LGBTQ+ Discrimination:
o 2014: Belgrade’s Gay Pride resumed after four years of being banned
due to violent attacks on LGBTQ+ individuals.
o 2019: A lesbian couple was physically assaulted on a London bus by
teenagers expressing homophobic views.
• Sports and Racism:
o India vs. Pakistan Cricket Match (2021): India’s defeat led to a surge in
Islamophobic attacks against Indian Muslim players and Kashmiri
students.
o Euro 2020 Final: England’s loss led to racist attacks on Black British
players (Rashford, Saka, Sancho) who missed penalty kicks.
• Gender Pay Gap:
o Women earn less than men for the same work.
o Businesses are actively trying to reduce gender-based pay inequality.
Key Takeaway:
Despite varying contexts, all these cases illustrate prejudice and discrimination based
on race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or other social factors.
,2. Psychological Foundations of Prejudice and Discrimination
• Prejudice can be perceived as:
1. Legitimate and justified (Crandall et al., 2002; Effron & Knowles, 2015).
2. Unacceptable and requiring change (Maddux et al., 2005; Monteith et
al., 2002).
• Discrimination can be blatant or subtle (Barreto & Ellemers, 2015).
• Social groups influence how we interpret social situations (e.g., police
shootings of Black men).
• Meta-analysis (Mekawi & Bresin, 2015): White participants in a speeded lab
task were more likely to shoot unarmed Black targets than White targets.
Stereotyping and Gender Discrimination
• Gender stereotypes are deeply ingrained and continue to affect workplaces.
• Although men and women have frequent social contact (unlike racial or
religious groups), gender-based discrimination remains widespread.
Why is Prejudice Persistent?
• Prejudice is rooted in cognitive and emotional processes.
• Prejudices can be explicit (conscious) or implicit (unconscious biases
influencing actions).
• Strategies to reduce prejudice will be discussed later.
3. How Group Membership Affects Perceptions of Inequality
• Social change is perceived differently by dominant and marginalized groups.
• Research findings:
o White vs. Black Americans:
▪ White Americans perceive less racial inequality in employment
wages than Black Americans (Miron et al., 2011).
▪ White Americans believe there has been significant progress in
racial equality, while Black Americans perceive much less
progress.
o Status Groups and Perception of Discrimination:
▪ High-status groups (e.g., White Americans, men) see their
privileges as normal and underestimate inequality.
▪ Low-status groups (e.g., ethnic minorities, women) recognize
more discrimination and inequality (Exline & Lobel, 1999).
Risk Aversion and Perceptions of Social Change
, • Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984):
o People weigh losses more heavily than equivalent gains.
o A dominant group sees social equality as a loss of privilege, while
marginalized groups see it as a gain.
• Research Findings (Branscombe et al., 2007):
o White Americans react with increased racism when their racial
privileges are questioned.
• Hate Speech and Nationalism:
o Hate groups and nationalist ideologies portray increasing diversity as a
threat or invasion (Dancygier & Green, 2010).
Study on Perceptions of Racial Change (Eibach & Keegan, 2006)
• Experiment: Participants graphed changes in racial composition of U.S.
universities (three conditions).
o “White losses & Minority gains” condition: White participants saw
racial progress as a zero-sum game.
o “White losses only” condition: White participants perceived greater
racial progress.
o “Minority gains only” condition: White participants perceived less
progress, similar to nonwhite participants.
• Conclusion:
o The framing of social change affects how it is perceived.
o Dominant groups tend to see diversity as a threat rather than a gain for
society.
4. Biases in Perceptions of Inequality
• People often underestimate actual inequality and prefer a more equal
distribution of wealth.
• Research Findings:
o Asian Americans & Wealth Perceptions (Kraus & Keltner, 2013):
▪ People viewed Asian Americans as equally wealthy as White
Americans, even when exposed to low-status Asian exemplars.
o Wealth Inequality in the U.S. (Arsenio & Willems, 2017):
▪ Low-to-middle-income ethnic minority adolescents
underestimated wealth inequality.
▪ Actual wealth distribution: Top 20% own 84% of wealth.
▪ Perceived wealth distribution: Top 20% own 48%.
o National Survey (Norton & Ariely, 2011):
▪ Americans dramatically underestimated inequality.
▪ Perceived: Top 20% own 59% of wealth.
1. Introduction: The Reality of Prejudice and Discrimination
• Prejudice and discrimination manifest in various contexts, affecting individuals
based on race, gender, nationality, religion, and other social categories.
• Prejudice involves negative emotional responses based on group
membership.
• Discrimination refers to differential (often negative) treatment based on
social group membership.
• Stereotyping refers to beliefs about what members of a particular group are
like.
Examples of Prejudice and Discrimination
• COVID-19 and Racism:
o March 2020: Chinese students in UK universities faced racist attacks
(verbal and physical), with mask-wearing increasing the likelihood of
discrimination.
o 2021: Australia banned its citizens from returning from India during a
COVID-19 surge, but not from other high-risk countries. Critics labeled
this a racist policy.
• LGBTQ+ Discrimination:
o 2014: Belgrade’s Gay Pride resumed after four years of being banned
due to violent attacks on LGBTQ+ individuals.
o 2019: A lesbian couple was physically assaulted on a London bus by
teenagers expressing homophobic views.
• Sports and Racism:
o India vs. Pakistan Cricket Match (2021): India’s defeat led to a surge in
Islamophobic attacks against Indian Muslim players and Kashmiri
students.
o Euro 2020 Final: England’s loss led to racist attacks on Black British
players (Rashford, Saka, Sancho) who missed penalty kicks.
• Gender Pay Gap:
o Women earn less than men for the same work.
o Businesses are actively trying to reduce gender-based pay inequality.
Key Takeaway:
Despite varying contexts, all these cases illustrate prejudice and discrimination based
on race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or other social factors.
,2. Psychological Foundations of Prejudice and Discrimination
• Prejudice can be perceived as:
1. Legitimate and justified (Crandall et al., 2002; Effron & Knowles, 2015).
2. Unacceptable and requiring change (Maddux et al., 2005; Monteith et
al., 2002).
• Discrimination can be blatant or subtle (Barreto & Ellemers, 2015).
• Social groups influence how we interpret social situations (e.g., police
shootings of Black men).
• Meta-analysis (Mekawi & Bresin, 2015): White participants in a speeded lab
task were more likely to shoot unarmed Black targets than White targets.
Stereotyping and Gender Discrimination
• Gender stereotypes are deeply ingrained and continue to affect workplaces.
• Although men and women have frequent social contact (unlike racial or
religious groups), gender-based discrimination remains widespread.
Why is Prejudice Persistent?
• Prejudice is rooted in cognitive and emotional processes.
• Prejudices can be explicit (conscious) or implicit (unconscious biases
influencing actions).
• Strategies to reduce prejudice will be discussed later.
3. How Group Membership Affects Perceptions of Inequality
• Social change is perceived differently by dominant and marginalized groups.
• Research findings:
o White vs. Black Americans:
▪ White Americans perceive less racial inequality in employment
wages than Black Americans (Miron et al., 2011).
▪ White Americans believe there has been significant progress in
racial equality, while Black Americans perceive much less
progress.
o Status Groups and Perception of Discrimination:
▪ High-status groups (e.g., White Americans, men) see their
privileges as normal and underestimate inequality.
▪ Low-status groups (e.g., ethnic minorities, women) recognize
more discrimination and inequality (Exline & Lobel, 1999).
Risk Aversion and Perceptions of Social Change
, • Prospect Theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984):
o People weigh losses more heavily than equivalent gains.
o A dominant group sees social equality as a loss of privilege, while
marginalized groups see it as a gain.
• Research Findings (Branscombe et al., 2007):
o White Americans react with increased racism when their racial
privileges are questioned.
• Hate Speech and Nationalism:
o Hate groups and nationalist ideologies portray increasing diversity as a
threat or invasion (Dancygier & Green, 2010).
Study on Perceptions of Racial Change (Eibach & Keegan, 2006)
• Experiment: Participants graphed changes in racial composition of U.S.
universities (three conditions).
o “White losses & Minority gains” condition: White participants saw
racial progress as a zero-sum game.
o “White losses only” condition: White participants perceived greater
racial progress.
o “Minority gains only” condition: White participants perceived less
progress, similar to nonwhite participants.
• Conclusion:
o The framing of social change affects how it is perceived.
o Dominant groups tend to see diversity as a threat rather than a gain for
society.
4. Biases in Perceptions of Inequality
• People often underestimate actual inequality and prefer a more equal
distribution of wealth.
• Research Findings:
o Asian Americans & Wealth Perceptions (Kraus & Keltner, 2013):
▪ People viewed Asian Americans as equally wealthy as White
Americans, even when exposed to low-status Asian exemplars.
o Wealth Inequality in the U.S. (Arsenio & Willems, 2017):
▪ Low-to-middle-income ethnic minority adolescents
underestimated wealth inequality.
▪ Actual wealth distribution: Top 20% own 84% of wealth.
▪ Perceived wealth distribution: Top 20% own 48%.
o National Survey (Norton & Ariely, 2011):
▪ Americans dramatically underestimated inequality.
▪ Perceived: Top 20% own 59% of wealth.
