,TESTBANK for Sociology In Our Times , 12th Edition
Diana Kendall
Notes
1- The file is chapter after chapter.
2- We have shown you few pages sample.
3- The file contains all Appendix and Excel
sheet if it exists.
4- We have all what you need, we make
update at every time. There are many
new editions waiting you.
5- If you think you purchased the wrong file
You can contact us at every time, we can
replace it with true one.
Our email:
,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
1. Sociology is a systematic study because sociologists apply both theoretical perspectives and research
methods to examinations of social behavior.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
2. The term sex refers to the socially constructed meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with
femininity and masculinity.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
3. Urbanization is the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and
handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
4. One of Durkheim’s major criticisms is that he failed to consider social structure or the determining
power of society in much of his theorizing.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
5. In the Marxian framework, the bourgeoisie is composed of those who must sell their labor because they
have no other means to earn a livelihood.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
6. According to the functionalist perspective, societies develop social structures (institutions) that persist
because they play a part in helping society survive. These institutions include the family, education,
government, religion, and the economy.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
7. According to Robert K. Merton, a latent function of education is the transmission of knowledge and
skills from one generation to the next; a manifest function is the establishment of social relations and
networks.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
8. Marcus spends excessively and has a huge credit card debt. A psychologist is likely to explain
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,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
Marcus’s situation by focusing on the internal factors acting on him, whereas a sociologist is likely to
explain the situation by focusing on the external factors causing him to spend excessively.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
9. According to Simmel, interaction patterns are the same between a dyad (a social group with two
members) and a triad (a group with three members) because the dynamics of communication remain the
same regardless of the number of people in the group.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
10. Unlike sociology, which concentrates primarily on a single institution, political science examines all
major social institutions, including the economy and politics.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
11. The ability to understand that smoking may facilitate social interaction among smokers, best
illustrates the concept of __________.
a. false consciousness
b. social stratification
c. the looking-glass self
d. the sociological imagination
ANSWER: d
12. The world’s high-income countries are nations:
a. with technologically advanced service occupations.
b. with high levels of power distance in society.
c. characterized by low levels of pluralism.
d. characterized by low levels of social stratification.
ANSWER: a
13. The United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and the countries of Western Europe are
examples of __________.
a. middle-income countries
b. subordinate-income countries
c. low-income countries
d. high-income countries
ANSWER: d
14. Which of the following best exemplifies a social construction?
a. Sex
b. Age
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,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
c. Gender
d. Height
ANSWER: c
15. According to Auguste Comte, societies contain __________, which are forces for conflict and change.
a. social statics
b. social functions
c. social dynamics
d. social choices
ANSWER: c
16. __________ is the belief that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their
environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out.
a. Social Darwinism
b. Social pluralism
c. Social nihilism
d. Social dynamism
ANSWER: a
17. The theory that history is a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces was developed by:
a. Talcott Parsons.
b. Karl Marx.
c. Emile Durkheim.
d. Robert K. Merton.
ANSWER: b
18. In the Marxian framework, the term __________ refers to the tools, land, factories, and money for
investment that form the economic basis of a society.
a. means of production
b. instruments of capitalism
c. means of consumption
d. channels of distribution
ANSWER: a
19. Vincent and Jerome work at a production factory. They work long hours for very low wages. They
believe there is nothing they can do about their situation and constantly feel detached from society and
from themselves. In the context of the Marxian framework, which of the following terms best describes
their situation?
a. Deindividuation
b. Alienation
c. Differential association
d. Systematic desensitization
ANSWER: b
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,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
20. Purchasing necessary items such as food, clothing, and household items is a(n) __________ of
shopping.
a. latent function
b. involuntary function
c. manifest function
d. linear function
ANSWER: c
21. From a functionalist perspective, the wife/mother is responsible for the __________, including
housework, caring for the children, and providing emotional support for the entire family.
a. expressive tasks
b. instrumental tasks
c. compatible tasks
d. independent tasks
ANSWER: a
22. Many young people “hang out,” meet friends, and eat lunch at the food courts of shopping malls.
From a functionalist perspective, this is an example of a __________ of shopping.
a. nonlinear function
b. latent function
c. prerequisite function
d. manifest function
ANSWER: b
23. Which of the following theorists would most likely argue that a booming economy benefits other
social institutions, including the family, religion, and education?
a. Functionalist theorists
b. Conflict theorists
c. Symbolic interactionists
d. Postmodernists
ANSWER: a
24. Conflict perspectives posit that:
a. the majority of members in society share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioral
expectations.
b. society is characterized by an inherent presence of stability and order.
c. groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources.
d. division of labor between husband and wife is essential for family stability and social order.
ANSWER: c
25. Which of the following is a difference between sociology and anthropology?
a. Sociology is particularly interested in contemporary social organization, whereas
anthropology primarily concentrates on the study of humankind in all times and spaces.
b. Sociology primarily focuses on internal factors relating to individuals in its explanations of
human behavior, whereas anthropology specifically focuses on external social factors.
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,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
c. Sociology concentrates primarily on a single institution, whereas anthropology examines all
major social institutions, including the economy and politics.
d. Sociology focuses on traditional societies and the development of diverse cultures, whereas
anthropology examines how we perceive ourselves in relation to the rest of the world.
ANSWER: a
26. The feminist perspective assumes that:
a. the division of labor between husband and wife is essential for family stability and social
order.
b. the wife/mother in a family is responsible for the expressive tasks, including providing
emotional support for the entire family.
c. change is essential in order for people to achieve their human potential without limits based
on gender.
d. social institutions, including school, church, and government, must work together to preserve
the family system over time.
ANSWER: c
27. Which of the following is a difference between sociology and psychology?
a. Unlike psychology, sociology focuses on studying a single aspect of human behavior.
b. Unlike psychology, sociology is particularly interested in traditional, rather than
contemporary, societies.
c. Unlike psychology, sociology focuses on understanding one institution in detail rather than
examining all major social institutions.
d. Unlike psychology, sociology specifically focuses on the effects of external social factors on
individuals.
ANSWER: d
28. Stephanie and Ali are both professors. Stephanie teaches about both traditional and contemporary
societies and the development of diverse cultures, whereas Ali teaches particularly about contemporary
social organization, relations, and social change. Both their classes cover many aspects of human
behavior. From this information, one can conclude that:
a. Stephanie teaches anthropology, whereas Ali teaches sociology.
b. Stephanie teaches sociology, whereas Ali teaches political science.
c. Stephanie teaches political science, whereas Ali teaches anthropology.
d. Stephanie teaches sociology, whereas Ali teaches anthropology.
ANSWER: a
29. Define sociology and explain how it helps us better understand our social world and ourselves.
ANSWER: Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction. It is a systematic
study because sociologists apply both theoretical perspectives and research methods (or
orderly approaches) to examinations of social behavior. Sociologists study human societies
and their social interactions to develop theories of how human behavior is shaped by group
life and how, in turn, group life is affected by individuals.
Sociology studies many aspects of human behavior; however, sociology is particularly
interested in contemporary social organization, relations, and social change. It specifically
focuses on external social factors, such as the effects of groups, organizations, and social
institutions on individuals and social life.
Sociology helps us gain a better understanding of ourselves and the social world. It enables
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Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
us to see how the groups to which we belong and the society in which we live largely shape
behavior.
Examining the world order helps us understand that we are all affected by global
interdependence—a relationship in which the lives of all people everywhere are intertwined
closely and any one nation’s problems are part of a larger global problem. Environmental
problems are an example. People throughout the world share the same biosphere. When
environmental degradation, such as removing natural resources or polluting the air and
water, takes place in one region, it may have an adverse effect on people around the globe.
Sociology enables us to move beyond established ways of thinking, thus allowing us to gain
new insights into ourselves and to develop a greater awareness of the connection between
our own “world” and that of other people. Sociology provides new ways of approaching
problems and making decisions in everyday life.
30. Discuss the sociological imagination and outline its importance.
ANSWER: Sociological reasoning is often referred to as the sociological imagination—the ability to see
the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society. The sociological
imagination is important to each of us because having this awareness enables us to
understand the link between our personal experiences and the social contexts in which they
occur. Each of us lives in a society, and we live out a biography within some historical
setting. The sociological imagination helps us grasp the relationship between history at the
societal level and our own biography at the individual level. It also helps us distinguish
between personal troubles and social (or public) issues. The sociological imagination
integrates microlevel (individual and small group) troubles with macrolevel (larger social
institutions and social forces) issues on a global basis.
31. Outline the differences between the views of early social thinkers and later social thinkers on social
stability and change.
ANSWER: Early social thinkers—such as Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Herbert Spencer, and
Emile Durkheim—were interested in analyzing social order and stability, and many of their
ideas have had a dramatic and long-lasting influence on modern sociology. The first of these
thinkers, Auguste Comte, focused primarily on continuity in societies, but his theories also
highlight how societies contain forces for change as well. Comte’s theory that societies
contain social statics (forces for social order and stability) and social dynamics (forces for
conflict and change) continues to be used in contemporary sociology. According to
Spencer’s Theory of General Evolution, society, like a biological organism, has various
interdependent parts (such as the family, the economy, and the government) that work to
ensure the stability and survival of the entire society. In his work The Rules of Sociological
Method, Durkheim set forth one of his most important contributions to sociology: the idea
that societies are built on social facts. Social facts are patterned ways of acting, thinking, and
feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person.
Together with Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Georg Simmel, Durkheim established the
direction of modern sociology. In sharp contrast to Durkheim’s focus on the stability of
society, German economist and philosopher Karl Marx stressed that history is a continuous
clash between conflicting ideas and forces. He believed that conflict—especially class
conflict—is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society. For Marx, the
most important changes are economic. German social scientist Max Weber was also
concerned about the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. He was concerned
that large-scale organizations (bureaucracies) were becoming increasingly oriented toward
routine administration and a specialized division of labor, which he believed were
destructive to human vitality and freedom. At about the same time that Durkheim was
developing the field of sociology in France, the German sociologist Georg Simmel was
theorizing about the importance of social change in his own country and elsewhere. Simmel
was also focusing on how society is a web of patterned interactions among people.
32. Define the terms race, ethnicity, class, sex, and gender. Explain the relationship between these terms
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Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
and the social construction of reality.
ANSWER: Race is a term used by many people to specify groups of people distinguished by physical characteristic
color. Ethnicity refers to the cultural heritage or identity of a group and is based on factors such as lang
origin. Class is the relative location of a person or group within the larger society, based on wealth, pow
other valued resources. Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and ma
gender refers to the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with sex differences, referred to as femi
masculinity. Although these terms sound very precise, they often do not have a precise meaning and are
constructions that people use to justify social inequalities. When we refer to something as a “social con
mean that race, ethnicity, class, and gender do not really indicate anything apart from the social meanin
given society confer on them. However, the result is that we may—either intentionally or unintentional
some categories of people over others who are placed in disadvantaged or subordinate positions. In sum
construction of reality” occurs when large numbers of people act and respond as if these categories exis
of being socially created.
33. In the context of the importance of a global sociological imagination, discuss the ways in which
nations are not on equal footing when it comes to economics and politics.
ANSWER: There are several important challenges that we face in a rapidly changing world. These
issues range from political and economic instability to environmental concerns, natural
disasters, and terrorism. All nations are not on equal footing when it comes to economics and
politics. The world’s high-income countries are nations with highly industrialized
economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and
relatively high levels of national and personal income. Examples include the United States,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and the countries of Western Europe. As compared
with other nations of the world, many high-income nations have a high standard of living
and a lower death rate because of advances in nutrition and medical technology. However,
everyone living in a so-called high-income country does not necessarily have these
advantages. In contrast, middle-income countries are nations with industrializing economies,
particularly in urban areas, and moderate levels of national and personal income. Examples
of middle-income countries include the nations of Eastern Europe and many Latin American
countries. Low-income countries are primarily agrarian nations with little industrialization
and low levels of national and personal income. Examples of low-income countries include
many of the nations of Africa and Asia, particularly the People’s Republic of China and
India, where people typically work the land and are among the poorest in the world.
However, generalizations are difficult to make because there are wide differences in income
and standards of living within many nations. The future of the United States is deeply
intertwined with the future of all other nations of the world on economic, political,
environmental, and humanitarian levels.
34. In the context of the conflict perspective, outline the feminist approach.
ANSWER: According to conflict perspectives, groups in society are engaged in a continuous power
struggle for control of scarce resources. Conflict may take the form of politics, litigation,
negotiations, or family discussions about financial matters. A feminist theoretical approach
(or “feminism”) directs attention to women’s experiences and the importance of gender as an
element of social structure. This approach is based on a belief in the equality of women and
men and the idea that all people should be equally valued and have equal rights. According
to feminist theorists, we live in a patriarchy, a system in which men dominate women and in
which things that are considered to be “male” or “masculine” are more highly valued than
those considered to be “female” or “feminine.” The feminist perspective assumes that gender
is socially created and that change is essential in order for people to achieve their human
potential without limits based on gender. Some feminists argue that women’s subordination
can end only after the patriarchal system becomes obsolete. However, feminism is not one
single, unified approach; there are several feminist perspectives.
35. Define industrialization and urbanization and explain the role of each in furthering sociological
thinking.
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ANSWER: Industrialization is the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on
agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries.
By the mid-nineteenth century, industrialization was well underway in the United States.
Massive economic, technological, and social changes occurred as machine technology and
the factory system shifted the economic base of these nations from agriculture to
manufacturing: textiles, iron smelting, and related industries. Many people who had labored
on the land were forced to leave their tightly knit rural communities and sacrifice well-
defined social relationships to seek employment as factory workers in the emerging cities,
which became the centers of industrial work. Urbanization is the process by which an
increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas. Although cities
existed long before the Industrial Revolution, the development of the factory system led to a
rapid increase in both the number of cities and the size of their population. People from very
diverse backgrounds worked together in the same factory. At the same time, many people
shifted from being producers to being consumers. For example, families living in the cities
had to buy food with their wages because they could no longer grow their own crops to eat
or to barter for other resources. Similarly, people had to pay rent for their lodging because
they could no longer exchange their services for shelter. These living and working
conditions led to the development of new social problems: inadequate housing, crowding,
unsanitary conditions, poverty, pollution, and crime.
Wages were so low that entire families—including very young children—were forced to
work, often under hazardous conditions and with no job security. As these conditions
became more visible, a new breed of social thinkers tried to understand why and how society
was changing.
36. Summarize Auguste Comte’s and Herbert Spencer’s significant contributions to early sociology.
ANSWER: The French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term sociology to describe a new science
that would engage in the study of society. Even though he never actually conducted
sociological research, Comte is considered by some to be the founder of sociology. Comte’s
theory that societies contain social statics (forces for social order and stability) and social
dynamics (forces for conflict and change) continues to be used in contemporary sociology.
For Comte, the best policies involved order and authority. He envisioned that a new
consensus would emerge on social issues and that the new science of sociology would play a
significant part in the reorganization of society. Comte’s philosophy became known as
positivism—a belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry. He
believed that positivism had two dimensions: (1) methodological—the application of
scientific knowledge to both physical and social phenomena—and (2) social and political—
the use of such knowledge to predict the likely results of different policies so that the best
one could be chosen. Social analysts have praised Comte for his advocacy of sociology and
his insights regarding linkages between the social structural elements of society (such as
family, religion, and government) and social thinking in specific historical periods.
Unlike Comte, who was strongly influenced by the upheavals of the French Revolution, the
British social theorist Herbert Spencer was born in a more peaceful and optimistic period in
his country’s history. Spencer’s major contribution to sociology was an evolutionary
perspective on social order and social change. Evolutionary theory helps to explain how
organic and/or social change occurs in societies. According to Spencer’s Theory of General
Evolution, society, like a biological organism, has various interdependent parts (such as the
family, the economy, and the government) that work to ensure the stability and survival of
the entire society. Spencer believed that societies develop through a process of “struggle”
(for existence) and “fitness” (for survival), which he referred to as the “survival of the
fittest.” Because this phrase is often attributed to Charles Darwin, Spencer’s view of society
is known as social Darwinism—the belief that those species of animals, including human
beings, best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted
die out.
37. In the context of Emile Durkheim’s contributions to early sociology, discuss the concepts of social
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 8
Diana Kendall
Notes
1- The file is chapter after chapter.
2- We have shown you few pages sample.
3- The file contains all Appendix and Excel
sheet if it exists.
4- We have all what you need, we make
update at every time. There are many
new editions waiting you.
5- If you think you purchased the wrong file
You can contact us at every time, we can
replace it with true one.
Our email:
,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
1. Sociology is a systematic study because sociologists apply both theoretical perspectives and research
methods to examinations of social behavior.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
2. The term sex refers to the socially constructed meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with
femininity and masculinity.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
3. Urbanization is the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and
handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
4. One of Durkheim’s major criticisms is that he failed to consider social structure or the determining
power of society in much of his theorizing.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
5. In the Marxian framework, the bourgeoisie is composed of those who must sell their labor because they
have no other means to earn a livelihood.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
6. According to the functionalist perspective, societies develop social structures (institutions) that persist
because they play a part in helping society survive. These institutions include the family, education,
government, religion, and the economy.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
7. According to Robert K. Merton, a latent function of education is the transmission of knowledge and
skills from one generation to the next; a manifest function is the establishment of social relations and
networks.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
8. Marcus spends excessively and has a huge credit card debt. A psychologist is likely to explain
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 1
,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
Marcus’s situation by focusing on the internal factors acting on him, whereas a sociologist is likely to
explain the situation by focusing on the external factors causing him to spend excessively.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: True
9. According to Simmel, interaction patterns are the same between a dyad (a social group with two
members) and a triad (a group with three members) because the dynamics of communication remain the
same regardless of the number of people in the group.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
10. Unlike sociology, which concentrates primarily on a single institution, political science examines all
major social institutions, including the economy and politics.
a. True
b. False
ANSWER: False
11. The ability to understand that smoking may facilitate social interaction among smokers, best
illustrates the concept of __________.
a. false consciousness
b. social stratification
c. the looking-glass self
d. the sociological imagination
ANSWER: d
12. The world’s high-income countries are nations:
a. with technologically advanced service occupations.
b. with high levels of power distance in society.
c. characterized by low levels of pluralism.
d. characterized by low levels of social stratification.
ANSWER: a
13. The United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and the countries of Western Europe are
examples of __________.
a. middle-income countries
b. subordinate-income countries
c. low-income countries
d. high-income countries
ANSWER: d
14. Which of the following best exemplifies a social construction?
a. Sex
b. Age
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,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
c. Gender
d. Height
ANSWER: c
15. According to Auguste Comte, societies contain __________, which are forces for conflict and change.
a. social statics
b. social functions
c. social dynamics
d. social choices
ANSWER: c
16. __________ is the belief that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their
environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out.
a. Social Darwinism
b. Social pluralism
c. Social nihilism
d. Social dynamism
ANSWER: a
17. The theory that history is a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces was developed by:
a. Talcott Parsons.
b. Karl Marx.
c. Emile Durkheim.
d. Robert K. Merton.
ANSWER: b
18. In the Marxian framework, the term __________ refers to the tools, land, factories, and money for
investment that form the economic basis of a society.
a. means of production
b. instruments of capitalism
c. means of consumption
d. channels of distribution
ANSWER: a
19. Vincent and Jerome work at a production factory. They work long hours for very low wages. They
believe there is nothing they can do about their situation and constantly feel detached from society and
from themselves. In the context of the Marxian framework, which of the following terms best describes
their situation?
a. Deindividuation
b. Alienation
c. Differential association
d. Systematic desensitization
ANSWER: b
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 3
,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
20. Purchasing necessary items such as food, clothing, and household items is a(n) __________ of
shopping.
a. latent function
b. involuntary function
c. manifest function
d. linear function
ANSWER: c
21. From a functionalist perspective, the wife/mother is responsible for the __________, including
housework, caring for the children, and providing emotional support for the entire family.
a. expressive tasks
b. instrumental tasks
c. compatible tasks
d. independent tasks
ANSWER: a
22. Many young people “hang out,” meet friends, and eat lunch at the food courts of shopping malls.
From a functionalist perspective, this is an example of a __________ of shopping.
a. nonlinear function
b. latent function
c. prerequisite function
d. manifest function
ANSWER: b
23. Which of the following theorists would most likely argue that a booming economy benefits other
social institutions, including the family, religion, and education?
a. Functionalist theorists
b. Conflict theorists
c. Symbolic interactionists
d. Postmodernists
ANSWER: a
24. Conflict perspectives posit that:
a. the majority of members in society share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioral
expectations.
b. society is characterized by an inherent presence of stability and order.
c. groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources.
d. division of labor between husband and wife is essential for family stability and social order.
ANSWER: c
25. Which of the following is a difference between sociology and anthropology?
a. Sociology is particularly interested in contemporary social organization, whereas
anthropology primarily concentrates on the study of humankind in all times and spaces.
b. Sociology primarily focuses on internal factors relating to individuals in its explanations of
human behavior, whereas anthropology specifically focuses on external social factors.
Copyright Cengage Learning. Powered by Cognero. Page 4
,Name: Class: Date:
Chapter 01 - The Sociological Perspective
c. Sociology concentrates primarily on a single institution, whereas anthropology examines all
major social institutions, including the economy and politics.
d. Sociology focuses on traditional societies and the development of diverse cultures, whereas
anthropology examines how we perceive ourselves in relation to the rest of the world.
ANSWER: a
26. The feminist perspective assumes that:
a. the division of labor between husband and wife is essential for family stability and social
order.
b. the wife/mother in a family is responsible for the expressive tasks, including providing
emotional support for the entire family.
c. change is essential in order for people to achieve their human potential without limits based
on gender.
d. social institutions, including school, church, and government, must work together to preserve
the family system over time.
ANSWER: c
27. Which of the following is a difference between sociology and psychology?
a. Unlike psychology, sociology focuses on studying a single aspect of human behavior.
b. Unlike psychology, sociology is particularly interested in traditional, rather than
contemporary, societies.
c. Unlike psychology, sociology focuses on understanding one institution in detail rather than
examining all major social institutions.
d. Unlike psychology, sociology specifically focuses on the effects of external social factors on
individuals.
ANSWER: d
28. Stephanie and Ali are both professors. Stephanie teaches about both traditional and contemporary
societies and the development of diverse cultures, whereas Ali teaches particularly about contemporary
social organization, relations, and social change. Both their classes cover many aspects of human
behavior. From this information, one can conclude that:
a. Stephanie teaches anthropology, whereas Ali teaches sociology.
b. Stephanie teaches sociology, whereas Ali teaches political science.
c. Stephanie teaches political science, whereas Ali teaches anthropology.
d. Stephanie teaches sociology, whereas Ali teaches anthropology.
ANSWER: a
29. Define sociology and explain how it helps us better understand our social world and ourselves.
ANSWER: Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction. It is a systematic
study because sociologists apply both theoretical perspectives and research methods (or
orderly approaches) to examinations of social behavior. Sociologists study human societies
and their social interactions to develop theories of how human behavior is shaped by group
life and how, in turn, group life is affected by individuals.
Sociology studies many aspects of human behavior; however, sociology is particularly
interested in contemporary social organization, relations, and social change. It specifically
focuses on external social factors, such as the effects of groups, organizations, and social
institutions on individuals and social life.
Sociology helps us gain a better understanding of ourselves and the social world. It enables
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us to see how the groups to which we belong and the society in which we live largely shape
behavior.
Examining the world order helps us understand that we are all affected by global
interdependence—a relationship in which the lives of all people everywhere are intertwined
closely and any one nation’s problems are part of a larger global problem. Environmental
problems are an example. People throughout the world share the same biosphere. When
environmental degradation, such as removing natural resources or polluting the air and
water, takes place in one region, it may have an adverse effect on people around the globe.
Sociology enables us to move beyond established ways of thinking, thus allowing us to gain
new insights into ourselves and to develop a greater awareness of the connection between
our own “world” and that of other people. Sociology provides new ways of approaching
problems and making decisions in everyday life.
30. Discuss the sociological imagination and outline its importance.
ANSWER: Sociological reasoning is often referred to as the sociological imagination—the ability to see
the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society. The sociological
imagination is important to each of us because having this awareness enables us to
understand the link between our personal experiences and the social contexts in which they
occur. Each of us lives in a society, and we live out a biography within some historical
setting. The sociological imagination helps us grasp the relationship between history at the
societal level and our own biography at the individual level. It also helps us distinguish
between personal troubles and social (or public) issues. The sociological imagination
integrates microlevel (individual and small group) troubles with macrolevel (larger social
institutions and social forces) issues on a global basis.
31. Outline the differences between the views of early social thinkers and later social thinkers on social
stability and change.
ANSWER: Early social thinkers—such as Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Herbert Spencer, and
Emile Durkheim—were interested in analyzing social order and stability, and many of their
ideas have had a dramatic and long-lasting influence on modern sociology. The first of these
thinkers, Auguste Comte, focused primarily on continuity in societies, but his theories also
highlight how societies contain forces for change as well. Comte’s theory that societies
contain social statics (forces for social order and stability) and social dynamics (forces for
conflict and change) continues to be used in contemporary sociology. According to
Spencer’s Theory of General Evolution, society, like a biological organism, has various
interdependent parts (such as the family, the economy, and the government) that work to
ensure the stability and survival of the entire society. In his work The Rules of Sociological
Method, Durkheim set forth one of his most important contributions to sociology: the idea
that societies are built on social facts. Social facts are patterned ways of acting, thinking, and
feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person.
Together with Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Georg Simmel, Durkheim established the
direction of modern sociology. In sharp contrast to Durkheim’s focus on the stability of
society, German economist and philosopher Karl Marx stressed that history is a continuous
clash between conflicting ideas and forces. He believed that conflict—especially class
conflict—is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society. For Marx, the
most important changes are economic. German social scientist Max Weber was also
concerned about the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. He was concerned
that large-scale organizations (bureaucracies) were becoming increasingly oriented toward
routine administration and a specialized division of labor, which he believed were
destructive to human vitality and freedom. At about the same time that Durkheim was
developing the field of sociology in France, the German sociologist Georg Simmel was
theorizing about the importance of social change in his own country and elsewhere. Simmel
was also focusing on how society is a web of patterned interactions among people.
32. Define the terms race, ethnicity, class, sex, and gender. Explain the relationship between these terms
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and the social construction of reality.
ANSWER: Race is a term used by many people to specify groups of people distinguished by physical characteristic
color. Ethnicity refers to the cultural heritage or identity of a group and is based on factors such as lang
origin. Class is the relative location of a person or group within the larger society, based on wealth, pow
other valued resources. Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and ma
gender refers to the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with sex differences, referred to as femi
masculinity. Although these terms sound very precise, they often do not have a precise meaning and are
constructions that people use to justify social inequalities. When we refer to something as a “social con
mean that race, ethnicity, class, and gender do not really indicate anything apart from the social meanin
given society confer on them. However, the result is that we may—either intentionally or unintentional
some categories of people over others who are placed in disadvantaged or subordinate positions. In sum
construction of reality” occurs when large numbers of people act and respond as if these categories exis
of being socially created.
33. In the context of the importance of a global sociological imagination, discuss the ways in which
nations are not on equal footing when it comes to economics and politics.
ANSWER: There are several important challenges that we face in a rapidly changing world. These
issues range from political and economic instability to environmental concerns, natural
disasters, and terrorism. All nations are not on equal footing when it comes to economics and
politics. The world’s high-income countries are nations with highly industrialized
economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and
relatively high levels of national and personal income. Examples include the United States,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and the countries of Western Europe. As compared
with other nations of the world, many high-income nations have a high standard of living
and a lower death rate because of advances in nutrition and medical technology. However,
everyone living in a so-called high-income country does not necessarily have these
advantages. In contrast, middle-income countries are nations with industrializing economies,
particularly in urban areas, and moderate levels of national and personal income. Examples
of middle-income countries include the nations of Eastern Europe and many Latin American
countries. Low-income countries are primarily agrarian nations with little industrialization
and low levels of national and personal income. Examples of low-income countries include
many of the nations of Africa and Asia, particularly the People’s Republic of China and
India, where people typically work the land and are among the poorest in the world.
However, generalizations are difficult to make because there are wide differences in income
and standards of living within many nations. The future of the United States is deeply
intertwined with the future of all other nations of the world on economic, political,
environmental, and humanitarian levels.
34. In the context of the conflict perspective, outline the feminist approach.
ANSWER: According to conflict perspectives, groups in society are engaged in a continuous power
struggle for control of scarce resources. Conflict may take the form of politics, litigation,
negotiations, or family discussions about financial matters. A feminist theoretical approach
(or “feminism”) directs attention to women’s experiences and the importance of gender as an
element of social structure. This approach is based on a belief in the equality of women and
men and the idea that all people should be equally valued and have equal rights. According
to feminist theorists, we live in a patriarchy, a system in which men dominate women and in
which things that are considered to be “male” or “masculine” are more highly valued than
those considered to be “female” or “feminine.” The feminist perspective assumes that gender
is socially created and that change is essential in order for people to achieve their human
potential without limits based on gender. Some feminists argue that women’s subordination
can end only after the patriarchal system becomes obsolete. However, feminism is not one
single, unified approach; there are several feminist perspectives.
35. Define industrialization and urbanization and explain the role of each in furthering sociological
thinking.
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ANSWER: Industrialization is the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on
agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries.
By the mid-nineteenth century, industrialization was well underway in the United States.
Massive economic, technological, and social changes occurred as machine technology and
the factory system shifted the economic base of these nations from agriculture to
manufacturing: textiles, iron smelting, and related industries. Many people who had labored
on the land were forced to leave their tightly knit rural communities and sacrifice well-
defined social relationships to seek employment as factory workers in the emerging cities,
which became the centers of industrial work. Urbanization is the process by which an
increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas. Although cities
existed long before the Industrial Revolution, the development of the factory system led to a
rapid increase in both the number of cities and the size of their population. People from very
diverse backgrounds worked together in the same factory. At the same time, many people
shifted from being producers to being consumers. For example, families living in the cities
had to buy food with their wages because they could no longer grow their own crops to eat
or to barter for other resources. Similarly, people had to pay rent for their lodging because
they could no longer exchange their services for shelter. These living and working
conditions led to the development of new social problems: inadequate housing, crowding,
unsanitary conditions, poverty, pollution, and crime.
Wages were so low that entire families—including very young children—were forced to
work, often under hazardous conditions and with no job security. As these conditions
became more visible, a new breed of social thinkers tried to understand why and how society
was changing.
36. Summarize Auguste Comte’s and Herbert Spencer’s significant contributions to early sociology.
ANSWER: The French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term sociology to describe a new science
that would engage in the study of society. Even though he never actually conducted
sociological research, Comte is considered by some to be the founder of sociology. Comte’s
theory that societies contain social statics (forces for social order and stability) and social
dynamics (forces for conflict and change) continues to be used in contemporary sociology.
For Comte, the best policies involved order and authority. He envisioned that a new
consensus would emerge on social issues and that the new science of sociology would play a
significant part in the reorganization of society. Comte’s philosophy became known as
positivism—a belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry. He
believed that positivism had two dimensions: (1) methodological—the application of
scientific knowledge to both physical and social phenomena—and (2) social and political—
the use of such knowledge to predict the likely results of different policies so that the best
one could be chosen. Social analysts have praised Comte for his advocacy of sociology and
his insights regarding linkages between the social structural elements of society (such as
family, religion, and government) and social thinking in specific historical periods.
Unlike Comte, who was strongly influenced by the upheavals of the French Revolution, the
British social theorist Herbert Spencer was born in a more peaceful and optimistic period in
his country’s history. Spencer’s major contribution to sociology was an evolutionary
perspective on social order and social change. Evolutionary theory helps to explain how
organic and/or social change occurs in societies. According to Spencer’s Theory of General
Evolution, society, like a biological organism, has various interdependent parts (such as the
family, the economy, and the government) that work to ensure the stability and survival of
the entire society. Spencer believed that societies develop through a process of “struggle”
(for existence) and “fitness” (for survival), which he referred to as the “survival of the
fittest.” Because this phrase is often attributed to Charles Darwin, Spencer’s view of society
is known as social Darwinism—the belief that those species of animals, including human
beings, best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted
die out.
37. In the context of Emile Durkheim’s contributions to early sociology, discuss the concepts of social
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