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What is religion?
There are three main ways in which sociologists define religion:
Substantive
Functional
Social constructionist
Substantive definitions
These definitions focus on focus on the content of religious belief, such as
a belief in God or the supernatural.
Weber (1905): defines religion as a belief in a superior or supernatural
power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically.
This definition are exclusive and make a clear distinction between
religion and non-religious belief.
These definitions align with the mainstream view that religion is a belief in
God.
AO3: This excludes many beliefs and practices that perform similar
functions as religion but do not involve the belief in a God.
AO3: This is ethnocentric and ignores practices, like Buddhism, that
don’t have a Western idea of God.
Functional definitions
Functional definitions define religion based on the psychological functions
it performs for individuals or society.
Durkheim (1915): defines religion based on the contribution it makes to
social integration.
What is religion? 1
1
, Yinger (1970): identifies the functions religion performs for people, such as
answering big questions in life, such as what happens when we die.
This definition is beneficial as it’s inclusive and covers a wide range of
beliefs and practices.
AO3: Just because an institution helps integrate individuals, it does not
make it a religion.
E.g. collective chanting at football games can create a sense of social
solidarity.
Constructionist definitions
Social constructionists take an interpretivist approach that focuses on how
individuals define religion.
They believe that it is not possible to produce a single universal
definition of religion as it means different things to everyone.
Social constructionists are interested in how the definition of religion is
constructed, challenged and fought over.
Aldridge (2013): uses views on Scientology to show that the definitions
of religion can be contested and are influenced by those in power.
Whilst followers of Scientology see it as a religion, the government
refuses to acknowledge it as a religion and have even tried to ban it.
AO3: This makes it impossible to generalise about the nature of religion.
What is religion? 2
2
, 🧩
Functionalist theories of
religion
Durkheim on religion
Functionalists believe that religious institutions are key in maintaining the
value consensus.
The Sacred and the profane
Durkheim (1915): the key feature of religion is a distinction between the
sacred and the profane.
The sacred: the things that are set apart and are forbidden; they inspire
feelings of awe, fear and wonder.
The profane: the things that are ordinary and mundane.
Argues that religion is not just a set of beliefs, but also involves collective
rituals and practices in relation to the sacred.
Durkheim believes that sacred things evoke such powerful feelings
because they are symbols representing something of greater power.
He believes that these sacred things are representing society itself.
This means that when people worship sacred symbols, they are
worshipping society itself.
Although these symbols vary between religion, they all perform the
same function of uniting believers.
Totemism
Durkheim believes that the essence of all religion could be found in
studying the simplest type of society - clan society.
Functionalist theories of religion 1
3
, So he studied the Arunta, an Aboriginal Australian tribe.
The tribe consists of groups of kin who regularly unite to perform rituals
that involve the worship of a sacred totem.
Durkheim believes that when they’re worshipping the totem, they are
actually worshipping society subconsciously.
The totem inspires feelings of awe in the clan members because it
represents the power of the group that these individuals are heavily
dependent on.
The collective conscience
Sacred symbols in religion represent society’s collective conscience.
Collective conscience: the shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge
that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible.
Without our collective conscience society would disintegrate.
Cognitive functions of religion
Durkheim also sees religion as a source of our intellectual capacities.
In order to think, we need categories such as time, space, cause etc.
In order to share our thoughts we need the same categories as each
other.
Durkheim argues that the origin of these concepts come from religion.
Durkheim and Mauss (1903; 2009): religion provides basic categories such
as time, space and causation.
E.g. the idea that the creator brought the world into existence at the
beginning of time.
This is why Durkheim sees religion as the origin of human thought,
reason and science.
Criticisms
Functionalist theories of religion 2
4
What is religion?
There are three main ways in which sociologists define religion:
Substantive
Functional
Social constructionist
Substantive definitions
These definitions focus on focus on the content of religious belief, such as
a belief in God or the supernatural.
Weber (1905): defines religion as a belief in a superior or supernatural
power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically.
This definition are exclusive and make a clear distinction between
religion and non-religious belief.
These definitions align with the mainstream view that religion is a belief in
God.
AO3: This excludes many beliefs and practices that perform similar
functions as religion but do not involve the belief in a God.
AO3: This is ethnocentric and ignores practices, like Buddhism, that
don’t have a Western idea of God.
Functional definitions
Functional definitions define religion based on the psychological functions
it performs for individuals or society.
Durkheim (1915): defines religion based on the contribution it makes to
social integration.
What is religion? 1
1
, Yinger (1970): identifies the functions religion performs for people, such as
answering big questions in life, such as what happens when we die.
This definition is beneficial as it’s inclusive and covers a wide range of
beliefs and practices.
AO3: Just because an institution helps integrate individuals, it does not
make it a religion.
E.g. collective chanting at football games can create a sense of social
solidarity.
Constructionist definitions
Social constructionists take an interpretivist approach that focuses on how
individuals define religion.
They believe that it is not possible to produce a single universal
definition of religion as it means different things to everyone.
Social constructionists are interested in how the definition of religion is
constructed, challenged and fought over.
Aldridge (2013): uses views on Scientology to show that the definitions
of religion can be contested and are influenced by those in power.
Whilst followers of Scientology see it as a religion, the government
refuses to acknowledge it as a religion and have even tried to ban it.
AO3: This makes it impossible to generalise about the nature of religion.
What is religion? 2
2
, 🧩
Functionalist theories of
religion
Durkheim on religion
Functionalists believe that religious institutions are key in maintaining the
value consensus.
The Sacred and the profane
Durkheim (1915): the key feature of religion is a distinction between the
sacred and the profane.
The sacred: the things that are set apart and are forbidden; they inspire
feelings of awe, fear and wonder.
The profane: the things that are ordinary and mundane.
Argues that religion is not just a set of beliefs, but also involves collective
rituals and practices in relation to the sacred.
Durkheim believes that sacred things evoke such powerful feelings
because they are symbols representing something of greater power.
He believes that these sacred things are representing society itself.
This means that when people worship sacred symbols, they are
worshipping society itself.
Although these symbols vary between religion, they all perform the
same function of uniting believers.
Totemism
Durkheim believes that the essence of all religion could be found in
studying the simplest type of society - clan society.
Functionalist theories of religion 1
3
, So he studied the Arunta, an Aboriginal Australian tribe.
The tribe consists of groups of kin who regularly unite to perform rituals
that involve the worship of a sacred totem.
Durkheim believes that when they’re worshipping the totem, they are
actually worshipping society subconsciously.
The totem inspires feelings of awe in the clan members because it
represents the power of the group that these individuals are heavily
dependent on.
The collective conscience
Sacred symbols in religion represent society’s collective conscience.
Collective conscience: the shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge
that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible.
Without our collective conscience society would disintegrate.
Cognitive functions of religion
Durkheim also sees religion as a source of our intellectual capacities.
In order to think, we need categories such as time, space, cause etc.
In order to share our thoughts we need the same categories as each
other.
Durkheim argues that the origin of these concepts come from religion.
Durkheim and Mauss (1903; 2009): religion provides basic categories such
as time, space and causation.
E.g. the idea that the creator brought the world into existence at the
beginning of time.
This is why Durkheim sees religion as the origin of human thought,
reason and science.
Criticisms
Functionalist theories of religion 2
4
