INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
Introduction & Background of the Indian National Movement
The Indian National Movement did not arise suddenly in the twentieth century, it was the
culmination of decades of resistance, cultural awakening, political debate, and collective
sacrifices. Its roots can be traced back to the mid-nineteenth century, beginning with the Revolt
of 1857, the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885, and the rise of early
movements such as Swadeshi in response to Bengal’s partition in 1905. These events laid the
foundation for mass mobilisation and eventual independence in 1947.
The Revolt of 1857: Nature, Causes, and Impact
The Revolt of 1857, often referred to as India’s “First War of Independence,” began at Meerut on
10 May 1857, when Indian sepoys rebelled against their British officers. While the immediate
spark was the introduction of Enfield rifles—which required cartridges greased with cow and pig
fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim soldiers—the revolt reflected deeper structural discontent.
According to the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA), its causes were
multidimensional:
● Political: The Doctrine of Lapse, implemented by Lord Dalhousie, allowed the British to
annex princely states without a natural heir, leading to widespread resentment among
Indian rulers.
● Economic: Peasants and artisans suffered from high taxation, the decline of traditional
industries, and the influx of cheap British goods.
● Social and Religious: Reforms perceived as threats to cultural traditions, along with
missionary activities, fueled suspicion of forced conversions.
The revolt spread rapidly across north and central India, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, and
Bareilly became key centres. Leaders like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Tantia Tope, Nana Sahib,
and Bahadur Shah Zafar symbolised resistance. Although brutally suppressed by 1859, its impact
was profound. The Government of India Act, 1858 transferred power from the East India
Company to the British Crown, inaugurating the British Raj. While militarily unsuccessful, the
uprising planted the seeds of Indian nationalism, creating a collective memory of resistance
against foreign domination (IIPA).
, Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885)
The next significant milestone was the establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) in
1885. Founded under the initiative of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired civil servant, it aimed to
provide a political platform for educated Indians. The first session, held in Bombay, was presided
over by Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee and attended by 72 delegates representing diverse regions.
Initially, the Congress pursued moderate methods such as petitions, resolutions, and appeals to
British liberal values. Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, and Gopal Krishna
Gokhale sought constitutional reforms, Indian participation in governance, and administrative
improvements. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) notes that though early
Congress lacked mass participation, it was crucial in politicising the middle class and training
leadership. Over time, the INC became the principal vehicle of India’s freedom struggle,
evolving from constitutional agitation to mass mobilisation under leaders like Gandhi.
Partition of Bengal & the Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911)
The partition of Bengal in 1905 by Viceroy Lord Curzon marked a turning point in Indian
nationalism. Officially justified on administrative grounds, the division created two provinces:
Eastern Bengal and Assam (with a Muslim majority) and Western Bengal (with a Hindu
majority). However, Indians perceived this as a deliberate attempt at “divide and rule”, intended
to weaken nationalist unity.
The response was the Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911), which became the first major mass
movement after 1857. “Swadeshi,” meaning “of one’s own country,” called for the boycott of
British goods and promotion of indigenous industries. Students, workers, women, and
intellectuals joined protests, public meetings, and processions. Nationalist leaders like Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh infused the
movement with militant spirit, while Rabindranath Tagore used songs and literature to inspire
people.
The movement emphasised self-reliance, establishing national schools, weaving khadi, and
supporting Indian-owned enterprises. As noted in Wikipedia, Gandhi later described Swadeshi as
the “soul of Swaraj”, highlighting its enduring role in the freedom struggle. Although the British
annulled Bengal’s partition in 1911, the Swadeshi agitation left a lasting legacy: it deepened
nationalist consciousness, gave birth to extremist politics, and demonstrated the potential of
economic boycott as a political weapon.
Evolution & Early Nationalist Forces
The early decades of the Indian National Congress (INC) witnessed a debate on the methods of
political struggle, which gradually divided nationalists into Moderates and Extremists. This
Introduction & Background of the Indian National Movement
The Indian National Movement did not arise suddenly in the twentieth century, it was the
culmination of decades of resistance, cultural awakening, political debate, and collective
sacrifices. Its roots can be traced back to the mid-nineteenth century, beginning with the Revolt
of 1857, the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885, and the rise of early
movements such as Swadeshi in response to Bengal’s partition in 1905. These events laid the
foundation for mass mobilisation and eventual independence in 1947.
The Revolt of 1857: Nature, Causes, and Impact
The Revolt of 1857, often referred to as India’s “First War of Independence,” began at Meerut on
10 May 1857, when Indian sepoys rebelled against their British officers. While the immediate
spark was the introduction of Enfield rifles—which required cartridges greased with cow and pig
fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim soldiers—the revolt reflected deeper structural discontent.
According to the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA), its causes were
multidimensional:
● Political: The Doctrine of Lapse, implemented by Lord Dalhousie, allowed the British to
annex princely states without a natural heir, leading to widespread resentment among
Indian rulers.
● Economic: Peasants and artisans suffered from high taxation, the decline of traditional
industries, and the influx of cheap British goods.
● Social and Religious: Reforms perceived as threats to cultural traditions, along with
missionary activities, fueled suspicion of forced conversions.
The revolt spread rapidly across north and central India, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, and
Bareilly became key centres. Leaders like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Tantia Tope, Nana Sahib,
and Bahadur Shah Zafar symbolised resistance. Although brutally suppressed by 1859, its impact
was profound. The Government of India Act, 1858 transferred power from the East India
Company to the British Crown, inaugurating the British Raj. While militarily unsuccessful, the
uprising planted the seeds of Indian nationalism, creating a collective memory of resistance
against foreign domination (IIPA).
, Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885)
The next significant milestone was the establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) in
1885. Founded under the initiative of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired civil servant, it aimed to
provide a political platform for educated Indians. The first session, held in Bombay, was presided
over by Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee and attended by 72 delegates representing diverse regions.
Initially, the Congress pursued moderate methods such as petitions, resolutions, and appeals to
British liberal values. Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, and Gopal Krishna
Gokhale sought constitutional reforms, Indian participation in governance, and administrative
improvements. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) notes that though early
Congress lacked mass participation, it was crucial in politicising the middle class and training
leadership. Over time, the INC became the principal vehicle of India’s freedom struggle,
evolving from constitutional agitation to mass mobilisation under leaders like Gandhi.
Partition of Bengal & the Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911)
The partition of Bengal in 1905 by Viceroy Lord Curzon marked a turning point in Indian
nationalism. Officially justified on administrative grounds, the division created two provinces:
Eastern Bengal and Assam (with a Muslim majority) and Western Bengal (with a Hindu
majority). However, Indians perceived this as a deliberate attempt at “divide and rule”, intended
to weaken nationalist unity.
The response was the Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911), which became the first major mass
movement after 1857. “Swadeshi,” meaning “of one’s own country,” called for the boycott of
British goods and promotion of indigenous industries. Students, workers, women, and
intellectuals joined protests, public meetings, and processions. Nationalist leaders like Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh infused the
movement with militant spirit, while Rabindranath Tagore used songs and literature to inspire
people.
The movement emphasised self-reliance, establishing national schools, weaving khadi, and
supporting Indian-owned enterprises. As noted in Wikipedia, Gandhi later described Swadeshi as
the “soul of Swaraj”, highlighting its enduring role in the freedom struggle. Although the British
annulled Bengal’s partition in 1911, the Swadeshi agitation left a lasting legacy: it deepened
nationalist consciousness, gave birth to extremist politics, and demonstrated the potential of
economic boycott as a political weapon.
Evolution & Early Nationalist Forces
The early decades of the Indian National Congress (INC) witnessed a debate on the methods of
political struggle, which gradually divided nationalists into Moderates and Extremists. This
