Booklet 8: Vietnam War
U. S. Presidents in Vietnam:
● Truman: After WW2, Truman committed to support the French in Indochina. The
Truman Doctrine and Policy of Containment guided his actions. He gave financial
and advisory support. The US gave $2 billion to the French and $150 million to South
Vietnam.
● Eisenhower: Eisenhower defied the results of the 1954 Geneva Convention. He
made the USA the guarantor of South Vietnam’s independence. He increased
military support for the French in an attempt to resolve the issue. He gave Diem
billions of dollars and 1500 military advisors. This was a step towards the deployment
of soldiers, though he did not carry this out.
● Kennedy: Felt that America had to make their power “credible”, and used Vietnam
for this. He continued to support Diem despite his disastrous policies (discrimination
to non-Catholics, nepotism, corruption, etc). His 1962 Strategic Hamlet Program
ended in failure. Kennedy viewed Vietnam in the context of the Cold War (monolithic
communism).
Chronology:
● November 1963: Lyndon B Johnson becomes President after Kennedy’s death.
● August 1964: US Congress agrees to Gulf of Tonkin resolution.
● 1965:
○ February: Pleiku incident occurs.
○ May: Operation Rolling Thunder starts.
○ November: The Battle of la Drang Valley.
● 1968:
○ January-February: The Tet Offensive.
○ March: Johnson announces his intention not to stand for re-election.
Johnson’s Policy in Vietnam:
● Johnson hoped for a quick victory in Vietnam without the need to commit US troops,
as he did not want the war to become Americanised.
● OPLAN 34A was a strategy based on covert action “progressively escalating
pressure… to inflict increasing punishment on North Vietnam” and to force Hanoi “to
desist from its aggressive policies”. Johnson was not committed to a negotiated
resolution and saw the conflict expanding into North Vietnam.
● The USA’s Western allies were not convinced of Johnson’s approach, and
international support diminished. France’s leader (De Gaulle) warned Johnson that
increased involvement could lead to a repetition of France’s failures.
, Gulf of Tonkin - August 1964:
On 2nd August 1964, three North Vietnamese patrol boats torpedoed two US Navy ships
(the ‘USS Maddox’ and the ‘USS Turner Joy’) in the Gulf of Tonkin, off the coast of Vietnam.
The US aircraft carrier ‘USS Ticonderoga’ retaliated. In response, on 7th August, the US
Congress passed the ‘Gulf of Tonkin Resolution’; remarkably this gave President Johnson
the power to take whatever action he felt necessary to prevent further attacks on US forces.
It was described as a ‘blank cheque’, or more humorously “like Grandma’s nightshirt”
(because it covered everything).
Deteriorating Situation:
● China had agreed to provide military supplies to North Vietnam.
● The USSR had established firm links with the NLF and set up a permanent mission in
Moscow, as well as sending military equipment.
● The People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN) moved down the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
● The Vietcong had strengthened their position, especially in the Mekong Delta region
near Saigon.
● US bombing in response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident failed to bolster the South
Vietnamese government. It increased anti-US feeling amongst both rural and urban
populations.
● The South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) had low morale, poor leadership, inadequate
training and low pay.
Operation Rolling Thunder (1964-68): was a bombing campaign from 1964-1968, in
response to Viet Cong attacks on army barracks and a US helicopter base in Pleiku. These
were followed by further attacks. The campaign was a significant escalation of US
involvement and led to increased anti-American sentiment.
Was it Johnson’s War?
● Johnson made the key decisions to escalate the Vietnam War—authorising
Operation Rolling Thunder and increasing troop numbers. In that sense, it seemed
like his war.
● However, he inherited a strong commitment to South Vietnam from previous
presidents and shared their Cold War outlook. Following Kennedy’s assassination, it
would have been difficult politically and personally to change direction. Johnson also
kept Kennedy’s advisers.
● His military and civilian advisers supported escalation, as did Congress and much of
the public. In late 1965, most Americans supported sending 500,000 troops. As his
biographer Vaughn Davis Bornet pointed out, three national elections during his
presidency showed democratic backing for his policies.
Did Johnson Lie About the Gulf of Tonkin Incident?
Earlier studies suggested Johnson deceived Congress and the public about attacks on U.S.
ships. But later research using declassified documents indicates the administration
genuinely believed two attacks had occurred. Johnson likely acted on mistaken intelligence.
U. S. Presidents in Vietnam:
● Truman: After WW2, Truman committed to support the French in Indochina. The
Truman Doctrine and Policy of Containment guided his actions. He gave financial
and advisory support. The US gave $2 billion to the French and $150 million to South
Vietnam.
● Eisenhower: Eisenhower defied the results of the 1954 Geneva Convention. He
made the USA the guarantor of South Vietnam’s independence. He increased
military support for the French in an attempt to resolve the issue. He gave Diem
billions of dollars and 1500 military advisors. This was a step towards the deployment
of soldiers, though he did not carry this out.
● Kennedy: Felt that America had to make their power “credible”, and used Vietnam
for this. He continued to support Diem despite his disastrous policies (discrimination
to non-Catholics, nepotism, corruption, etc). His 1962 Strategic Hamlet Program
ended in failure. Kennedy viewed Vietnam in the context of the Cold War (monolithic
communism).
Chronology:
● November 1963: Lyndon B Johnson becomes President after Kennedy’s death.
● August 1964: US Congress agrees to Gulf of Tonkin resolution.
● 1965:
○ February: Pleiku incident occurs.
○ May: Operation Rolling Thunder starts.
○ November: The Battle of la Drang Valley.
● 1968:
○ January-February: The Tet Offensive.
○ March: Johnson announces his intention not to stand for re-election.
Johnson’s Policy in Vietnam:
● Johnson hoped for a quick victory in Vietnam without the need to commit US troops,
as he did not want the war to become Americanised.
● OPLAN 34A was a strategy based on covert action “progressively escalating
pressure… to inflict increasing punishment on North Vietnam” and to force Hanoi “to
desist from its aggressive policies”. Johnson was not committed to a negotiated
resolution and saw the conflict expanding into North Vietnam.
● The USA’s Western allies were not convinced of Johnson’s approach, and
international support diminished. France’s leader (De Gaulle) warned Johnson that
increased involvement could lead to a repetition of France’s failures.
, Gulf of Tonkin - August 1964:
On 2nd August 1964, three North Vietnamese patrol boats torpedoed two US Navy ships
(the ‘USS Maddox’ and the ‘USS Turner Joy’) in the Gulf of Tonkin, off the coast of Vietnam.
The US aircraft carrier ‘USS Ticonderoga’ retaliated. In response, on 7th August, the US
Congress passed the ‘Gulf of Tonkin Resolution’; remarkably this gave President Johnson
the power to take whatever action he felt necessary to prevent further attacks on US forces.
It was described as a ‘blank cheque’, or more humorously “like Grandma’s nightshirt”
(because it covered everything).
Deteriorating Situation:
● China had agreed to provide military supplies to North Vietnam.
● The USSR had established firm links with the NLF and set up a permanent mission in
Moscow, as well as sending military equipment.
● The People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN) moved down the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
● The Vietcong had strengthened their position, especially in the Mekong Delta region
near Saigon.
● US bombing in response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident failed to bolster the South
Vietnamese government. It increased anti-US feeling amongst both rural and urban
populations.
● The South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) had low morale, poor leadership, inadequate
training and low pay.
Operation Rolling Thunder (1964-68): was a bombing campaign from 1964-1968, in
response to Viet Cong attacks on army barracks and a US helicopter base in Pleiku. These
were followed by further attacks. The campaign was a significant escalation of US
involvement and led to increased anti-American sentiment.
Was it Johnson’s War?
● Johnson made the key decisions to escalate the Vietnam War—authorising
Operation Rolling Thunder and increasing troop numbers. In that sense, it seemed
like his war.
● However, he inherited a strong commitment to South Vietnam from previous
presidents and shared their Cold War outlook. Following Kennedy’s assassination, it
would have been difficult politically and personally to change direction. Johnson also
kept Kennedy’s advisers.
● His military and civilian advisers supported escalation, as did Congress and much of
the public. In late 1965, most Americans supported sending 500,000 troops. As his
biographer Vaughn Davis Bornet pointed out, three national elections during his
presidency showed democratic backing for his policies.
Did Johnson Lie About the Gulf of Tonkin Incident?
Earlier studies suggested Johnson deceived Congress and the public about attacks on U.S.
ships. But later research using declassified documents indicates the administration
genuinely believed two attacks had occurred. Johnson likely acted on mistaken intelligence.
