2025 WJEC Criminology Exam Guide: Officially Updated Questions and Answers for Guaranteed Success

2025 WJEC Criminology Exam Guide: Officially Updated Questions and Answers for Guaranteed Success How do postmodernist criminologists challenge traditional theories of crime, and what are their contributions to understanding criminal behavior? Postmodernist criminologists challenge traditional theories by emphasizing the fluid and subjective nature of crime and deviance. They argue that crime is not a fixed concept but rather a social construct shaped by power relations, media portrayals, and cultural narratives. In what ways do the concepts of "social disorganization" and "collective efficacy" explain crime rates in urban communities? Social disorganization theory suggests that crime is more likely in neighborhoods with weak social institutions and lack of social cohesion. Collective efficacy refers to the ability of residents to maintain social control and prevent crime, arguing that strong community bonds can reduce crime even in disadvantaged areas. Critically examine the relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior, considering both psychological and sociological perspectives. Psychological perspectives often argue that mental illness can lead to criminal behavior due to impaired judgment or lack of impulse control. Sociological perspectives suggest that societal factors, such as stigma and exclusion, may exacerbate mental illness, increasing the likelihood of individuals engaging in criminal activity. How does the concept of "gendered justice" address the challenges faced by women in the criminal justice system, and what reforms have been proposed to improve their treatment? Gendered justice acknowledges that women face unique challenges in the criminal justice system, such as gender-based violence or systemic discrimination. Reforms have been proposed to address these issues, including gender-responsive rehabilitation programs, specialized courts, and policies to address the over-criminalization of women. Discuss the impact of mass incarceration on families and communities, focusing on the social, economic, and psychological effects. 1 Mass incarceration has devastating effects on families and communities, particularly in marginalized groups. Socially, it disrupts family structures and increases poverty. Economically, families may experience financial strain due to loss of income, while psychologically, individuals may face trauma, stigma, and emotional strain. What role does "criminogenic need" play in rehabilitative strategies, and how does it influence individualized treatment for offenders? Criminogenic needs refer to factors that contribute to criminal behavior, such as substance abuse, lack of education, or antisocial attitudes. Rehabilitation strategies that address these needs are more likely to be effective, as they focus on modifying the root causes of criminal behavior rather than just the symptoms. How does the concept of "victim-blaming" impact the criminal justice process, and what are the consequences for victims of crime? Victim-blaming occurs when the victim is held partially responsible for the crime committed against them, often due to their actions or behavior. This mentality can discourage victims from reporting crimes, perpetuate social stigmas, and result in inadequate support or justice for the victims. What is the role of the "culture of control" in contemporary criminal justice policy, and how does it shape the criminalization of certain behaviors? The culture of control refers to a societal shift toward greater reliance on punitive measures to control crime, emphasizing surveillance, incarceration, and policing. This approach has contributed to the criminalization of behaviors, particularly in marginalized communities, by focusing on punishment rather than prevention or rehabilitation. Critically analyze the "routine activities theory" in relation to crimes like burglary, considering the impact of technological advancements on criminal opportunities. Routine activities theory suggests that crime occurs when a motivated offender encounters a suitable target without capable guardianship. Technological advancements, such as home security systems or the internet, have altered these dynamics by reducing the suitability of targets or providing new opportunities for crime. Explain how “criminological positivism” differs from "classical criminology" in understanding criminal behavior, with a focus on determinism versus free will. 2 Criminological positivism, influenced by figures like Cesare Lombroso, argues that criminal behavior is determined by factors such as biology, psychology, or social environment. In contrast, classical criminology, grounded in the ideas of Cesare Beccaria, emphasizes free will and rational decision-making in committing crimes. How does the concept of "restorative justice" challenge traditional punitive models, and what are the potential benefits and drawbacks of implementing such practices in criminal justice systems? Restorative justice seeks to repair harm by involving offenders, victims, and the community in dialogue and restitution. It challenges punitive models by focusing on healing and reconciliation rather than retribution. Potential benefits include reduced recidivism and improved victim satisfaction, but challenges include ensuring fairness and avoiding offender manipulation. What is the role of social media in shaping modern criminal behavior, and how does it complicate traditional methods of crime detection and prevention? Social media plays a significant role in facilitating criminal behavior, such as cyberbullying, fraud, and organized crime. It complicates traditional crime detection and prevention by allowing anonymous interactions, rapid dissemination of criminal activities, and new methods of exploitation, requiring novel strategies for law enforcement. Evaluate the concept of "elite deviance" and discuss its implications for public perceptions of crime and justice. Elite deviance refers to illegal or unethical actions committed by individuals in positions of power, such as corporate executives or politicians. It is often overlooked or under-punished, which undermines public trust in the justice system and perpetuates social inequality by allowing the powerful to escape accountability. Discuss how restorative justice practices can be integrated into the traditional criminal justice system, and the challenges of achieving broad implementation. Restorative justice can be integrated into the traditional system by incorporating victim-offender dialogues, community-based interventions, and restorative sentencing. Challenges include overcoming resistance from law enforcement, ensuring adequate training for facilitators, and ensuring that the practices do not disproportionately benefit offenders over victims. What is the relationship between poverty and crime according to "relative deprivation theory," and how can this understanding influence crime prevention policies? 3 Relative deprivation theory suggests that crime occurs when individuals or groups feel deprived relative to others in society. This sense of inequality and frustration may lead to criminal behavior. Crime prevention policies could focus on reducing economic inequalities and promoting social inclusion to mitigate these feelings of deprivation. How does the social construction of crime shape the legal process, and what role do political and cultural factors play in defining what is considered criminal? The social construction of crime argues that crime is not an inherent characteristic of an act, but rather a label assigned by society. Political and cultural factors, such as media influence, moral panics, and interest group lobbying, play a key role in shaping the legal process by determining which behaviors are criminalized. What is the “culture of fear” in relation to criminal justice, and how does it affect public perceptions and policy-making? The “culture of fear” refers to a societal condition where the fear of crime is amplified by media, political rhetoric, and social narratives, often leading to overreaction in policy-making. It can cause disproportionate public concern over crime rates, leading to harsh policies such as mass incarceration and surveillance that may not be effective in reducing actual crime. Critically analyze the effectiveness of prison as a deterrent to crime, considering both the short-term and long-term impacts on offenders. Prison can serve as a deterrent in the short term by physically preventing individuals from committing crimes, but its long-term effectiveness is debated. While it may deter repeat offenses for some individuals, the stigma of imprisonment and the lack of rehabilitative opportunities can contribute to recidivism and reintegration challenges. What is the impact of racial profiling on criminal justice practices, and how does it perpetuate inequality in policing and sentencing? Racial profiling involves targeting individuals based on their race or ethnicity rather than their behavior or criminal history. It perpetuates inequality by leading to disproportionate surveillance, arrests, and harsher sentencing for minority communities, reinforcing systemic racism within the criminal justice system. Explain the concept of “criminological realism” and discuss its implications for understanding crime in contemporary society. 4 Criminological realism suggests that crime cannot always be eradicated but should be managed by understanding its root causes, including economic and social factors. This approach acknowledges that crime is a social reality and focuses on practical strategies for crime reduction and social control, rather than idealistic or punitive measures. How do economic theories of crime, such as the "rational choice theory," explain criminal behavior, and what are the limitations of this approach? Rational choice theory posits that individuals commit crimes based on a rational calculation of the benefits and risks involved. It assumes that offenders act logically in pursuit of rewards. Limitations of this approach include its failure to account for emotional or impulsive behaviors and the influence of external pressures or irrational factors in criminal decision-making. What are the challenges in applying criminological theories across different cultural contexts, and how can criminologists address these challenges? Criminological theories may not always apply uniformly across cultures due to differences in social norms, legal systems, and economic conditions. Criminologists can address these challenges by adopting a comparative approach that considers cultural, historical, and contextual factors when applying theories to different societies. What is the key distinction between the concepts of “criminal liability” and “criminal responsibility” in the context of criminological theory? Criminal liability refers to the legal consequences of committing a criminal act, whereas criminal responsibility pertains to the mental state or intent of the individual when committing the crime. Explain how strain theory explains the occurrence of criminal behavior in individuals who experience societal pressures, and identify a real-life example that supports this theory. Strain theory posits that individuals may resort to criminal behavior when they are unable to achieve socially accepted goals due to a lack of legitimate means, such as education or employment. A real-life example includes individuals in low-income neighborhoods who may turn to drug dealing to gain wealth. Discuss how differential association theory can be applied to explain gang membership and its influence on criminal behavior. 5 Differential association theory suggests that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who engage in criminal activities. In the context of gang membership, individuals adopt criminal behaviors by associating with peers who promote and normalize illegal activities. How does the concept of “moral panic” relate to societal reactions to criminal activities, and provide an example of such a panic in recent history? Moral panic occurs when a society overreacts to a perceived threat, often exaggerating the danger posed by a certain group or activity. An example is the “Satanic Panic” of the 1980s and 1990s, where widespread fear of ritual Satanic abuse led to unfounded accusations and wrongful convictions. Critically analyze the role of media in shaping public perceptions of crime and criminal behavior, using a specific case study to illustrate the influence. Media plays a significant role in shaping public perceptions by sensationalizing crime stories, often creating fear or moral outrage. A case study is the media coverage of the “London Riots” in 2011, which influenced the public’s view on youth crime and social unrest. What are the core arguments of the critical criminology perspective, and how does it challenge traditional views of criminal justice? Critical criminology argues that the criminal justice system is biased, serving the interests of powerful groups while marginalizing others. It challenges traditional views by emphasizing the need to address social inequalities that contribute to criminal behavior, rather than focusing solely on individual culpability. Explain how the concept of “restorative justice” differs from retributive justice in addressing crime and its impact on both offenders and victims. Restorative justice focuses on repairing harm and restoring relationships between offenders and victims, often through dialogue and restitution, while retributive justice seeks punishment as a form of deterrence and retribution for wrongdoings. How does the labeling theory of crime explain the process by which individuals come to be labeled as criminals, and what are the social consequences of such labels? Labeling theory suggests that individuals are labeled as criminals by society due to their actions, which then influences their self-identity and future behavior. The social consequences include social exclusion and an increased likelihood of recidivism, as individuals internalize the criminal label. 6 Discuss the concept of "white-collar crime" and explain its difference from conventional crime, providing examples of each type. White-collar crime refers to non-violent crimes committed by individuals in professional or occupational settings, often for financial gain. It differs from conventional crime, which typically involves physical harm. Examples of white-collar crime include corporate fraud and embezzlement, while examples of conventional crime include robbery and assault. Evaluate the effectiveness of the “three strikes” law in reducing recidivism and its broader social implications, particularly regarding racial disparities in incarceration. The “three strikes” law mandates life sentences for individuals convicted of three or more serious crimes. While it may reduce recidivism in some cases, it has been criticized for disproportionately affecting minority communities and leading to overcrowding in prisons without addressing the root causes of crime. What is the concept of “situational crime prevention,” and how does it aim to reduce crime through changes in the environment or routine activities? Situational crime prevention focuses on reducing opportunities for crime by altering the physical environment or modifying routine activities to make crime less likely. For example, improved street lighting or the installation of security cameras in high-crime areas can deter criminal activity. Analyze how the principles of classical criminology differ from those of positivist criminology, highlighting key theorists associated with each school. Classical criminology, associated with Cesare Beccaria, emphasizes the importance of free will and rational choice in criminal behavior, while positivist criminology, associated with Cesare Lombroso, argues that criminal behavior is influenced by biological or social factors outside the individual’s control. In what ways does the concept of “social control” theory help explain the relationship between family, education, and criminal behavior? Social control theory suggests that strong societal bonds, such as those with family and educational institutions, prevent individuals from engaging in criminal behavior. A lack of these bonds may lead to increased risk of criminality, as individuals are less likely to conform to societal norms. What role do socioeconomic factors play in influencing criminal behavior according to sociological theories of crime? 7 Sociological theories of crime, such as strain theory and social disorganization theory, argue that socioeconomic factors like poverty, lack of education, and unemployment contribute to criminal behavior by creating pressures or opportunities for crime. Discuss the concept of "cybercrime" and the challenges it poses for traditional law enforcement agencies in terms of investigation and prosecution. Cybercrime refers to crimes that involve computers or the internet, such as hacking or identity theft. It poses challenges for law enforcement because perpetrators can operate anonymously across borders, and traditional investigative methods may not be effective in tracking digital evidence. Evaluate the impact of the "war on drugs" on marginalized communities, particularly in relation to racial disparities in arrests and incarceration rates. The “war on drugs” has disproportionately impacted marginalized communities, particularly African Americans, by leading to higher arrest and incarceration rates for drug-related offenses, despite similar rates of drug use across racial groups. This has contributed to systemic racial disparities in the criminal justice system. Explain how the concept of "victimology" contributes to criminological research and policy-making, particularly in addressing the needs of victims of crime. Victimology focuses on understanding the experiences of victims and their role in the criminal justice process. It contributes to criminological research and policy-making by highlighting the importance of victim support services and informing policies that aim to reduce victimization and improve the treatment of victims within the justice system. What are the main criticisms of the “broken windows theory” of policing, and how does it impact community relations? The “broken windows theory” suggests that cracking down on minor offenses, like vandalism, will prevent more serious crimes. Criticisms include that it disproportionately targets low-income and minority communities and can damage community relations by fostering mistrust between police and residents. How do feminist criminological perspectives challenge traditional theories of crime and gender, and what alternative explanations do they offer for female criminality? Feminist criminology challenges traditional male-centric criminological theories by arguing that crime is often shaped by gendered power dynamics and patriarchy. It offers alternative explanations, 8 suggesting that women may commit crimes in response to societal oppression, abuse, or gender-based inequalities. Discuss the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing reoffending rates among incarcerated individuals, and provide examples of successful programs. Rehabilitation programs, such as vocational training, educational courses, and therapy, have been shown to reduce reoffending rates by addressing the root causes of criminal behavior. Successful programs include those that focus on mental health treatment, substance abuse recovery, and job skills training, such as the “Second Chance” program in the U.S. What is the impact of the globalization of crime, and how has it affected national criminal justice systems? The globalization of crime refers to the increasing interconnectedness of criminal activities across borders, such as human trafficking or international drug cartels. It has affected national criminal justice systems by necessitating greater international cooperation and the development of specialized global frameworks to combat transnational crime. How does the concept of “criminogenic environments” explain the relationship between social and physical environments and criminal behavior? Criminogenic environments refer to settings that promote or encourage criminal behavior due to factors like poverty, lack of social cohesion, and physical decay. These environments can create conditions that increase the likelihood of crime, such as high-crime neighborhoods with inadequate policing or social services. Evaluate the role of punishment as a deterrent to crime within the context of utilitarianism, and identify key criticisms of this approach. Utilitarianism argues that punishment should be aimed at deterring future crimes and benefiting society as a whole. Criticisms of this approach include its failure to address the root causes of criminal behavior and its potential for excessive or disproportionate punishment that may not effectively reduce crime. What is the role of forensic psychology in understanding criminal behavior, and how does it assist law enforcement agencies in criminal investigations? 9 Forensic psychology involves the application of psychological principles to understand criminal behavior and assist in criminal investigations. It helps law enforcement by profiling suspects, assessing mental competence, and providing expert testimony on issues like criminal intent or risk of reoffending. How does routine activities theory explain the occurrence of crimes, and what are its key components? Routine activities theory suggests that crimes occur when three elements converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of capable guardianship. This theory emphasizes how changes in daily routines can increase or decrease the likelihood of crime occurring. What are the ethical dilemmas associated with the use of surveillance technologies in policing, and how do they impact civil liberties? The use of surveillance technologies, such as facial recognition or mass data collection, raises ethical dilemmas concerning privacy and civil liberties. While these technologies may enhance security, they can infringe on individuals' rights and contribute to over-policing or racial profiling. How do the concepts of “social construction of crime” and “moral entrepreneurship” help explain how certain behaviors come to be defined as criminal? The social construction of crime refers to how certain behaviors are defined as criminal based on societal reactions, rather than intrinsic qualities of the act itself. Moral entrepreneurship describes how individuals or groups work to create and enforce moral norms, leading to the criminalization of certain behaviors. What is the relationship between criminal law and the concept of justice, and how do different schools of thought influence this relationship? Criminal law is meant to reflect society’s understanding of justice, with various schools of thought offering different perspectives. Retributive justice focuses on punishment, while restorative justice seeks to repair harm, and utilitarianism emphasizes deterrence and societal benefit. Each approach influences how criminal law is applied and interpreted. Lombroso's Theory Criminals are born criminal with Atavistic Features which define if they are criminal or not. Criminals are a primative species which are not fully developed. Strengths of Lombroso's theory Charles Goring (1913) found that criminals have low intelligence rates meaning that it is linked to genetics. 10 Ceasare Lombroso is the father of modern criminology meaning that he has started criminology which helped made other people want to study it. A study done by Bath Spa University found that jourers would pick someone who looked 'uglier' to be the criminal. Weaknesses of Lombroso's theory He did not use a control group. Goring used a control group and found no correlation between atavistic features and criminal behaviour. DeLesi (2012) stated that the atavistic form theory is scientific racism as the typical atavistic features are from an African background. What is Sheldon's Theory of Somatotypes? There are three different body types: Mesomorph: Muscular and Hard- Most likely to be criminal. Endomorph: Fat and Soft Ectomorph: Skinny and Weak- Least likely to be criminal. Strengths of Somatotype Theory. Putwain and Sammonds confirmed that Sheldon's theory is true. Gleuek and Gleuek (1956) found that 60% of delinquents were mesomorph whereas in non delinquents 31% were mesomorphs meaning it backed up Sheldon's theory of Somatotypes. Weaknesses of Somatotype Theory Not everyone who is Mesomorph is criminal. Endomorphs and Ectomorphs are criminals too. People's body shapes change over time. What is the XYY Theory ? The XYY theory is where some males have an extra Y chromosome which makes them more aggressive. Criminality is genetic, and these people with an abnormality are more likely to commit crime. 11 Strengths of XYY genetic factors. Adler found that it is possible that aggressive and violent behavior links partly to Jacobs et al found that more men in prison have xyy that in the outside world. Theildgard found that XYY men are more likely to be aggressive. Weaknesses of XYY do not explain aggression. Genetic abnormalities widespread through the population meaning that they They ignore the fact that crime could be caused by other factors like behavioral ones. Theilgard compared the characteristics of XYY men and XY men, he found that xyy men had a slightly higher rate of aggression but that doesn't explain how they committed crime. Twin Studies Strength .Such stories are natural experiments, as the biological relationships between the twins is a naturally occurring variable, 2.Christiansen (1977) supports the view that criminality does have a genetic component. 3.The results of twin studies have helped in the prevention of vulnerable disorders. Twin Studies Weaknesses nurture rather than genetics. If twins are brought up in the same household then it could be linked to Early studies lack vadility as they were not controlled correctly as the twins were picked based on their appearance rather than their genetics (MZ or DZ). Only a small sample of 30 sets of twins were used in the experiment meaning it may not be a true representation of the general population. 12 What is the Social Learning Theory? The social learning theory states that we learn how to behave based on observing those around us. The bobo doll experiment was used to back up Albert Bandura's theory, where children watched an aggressive adult abuse the doll and then the children were put into the room with the doll and they imitated the behavior that they had observed. Strengths of SLT Experiments like the Bobo Doll one can be replicated with slight changes and the results will still be the same. The experiment showed the cause of aggression was due to watching the model. The Bobo Doll experiment was controlled precisely which makes the experiment more accurate. Weaknesses of SLT Scientists are highly critical of laboratory studies of imitation as they have lower natural validity, as it wasn't a natural situation and often doesn't occur in a normal family situation for a child. The child did not get time to interact with the adult before they watched and imitated the behaviour. The doll was a object that the children had not seen before if they knew what it was and had seen it before they may not be as aggressive to the doll as they may like it. The experiment could have been unethical and they do not know the long term effects of the experiment on the children. What is the Psychodynamic Theory? This is a theory by Sigmund Freud where he says that the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind are at a battle with each other. There are three parts of the personality, the ID, the Ego and the Super Ego. The ID is the selfish part of the brain that you are born with, criminals are ID dominated as they only think about themselves. The Ego develops in childhood around the ago of 7 which helps to balance these selfish thoughts and tries to find ways to get these desires but remembering that we live in reality. Finally the super ego is at the top it is the best version of the personality that someone can be as it is self critical so it makes decisions based on rules and regulations set by society and family members. Strengths of Psychodynamic Theory also paved the way for later research. Weaknesses of Psychodynamic Theory It makes important links with childhood experiences. It has The psychodynamic theories of offending are no longer widely affected by psychologists. It is impossible to prove to the unconscious minds or the other parts of the brain. It is unscientific and unprincipled as it explains behaviour once it has happened not before it happened. It lacks objectivity as it behaviour can be interpreted differently to different people based on their thoughts and feelings. Therapies based upon this theories are successful. 13 What is the Psychological Theory? This is a scale which measure different people's mental processes, the scales are stable to neurotic or extrovert to introvert. The typical criminal is between neurotic and the middle of the scale and highly extroverted meaning that they are outgoing and socially confident. Strengths of Psychological Theory. It is possible to treat behaviour at an early stage before it can develop into worse behaviour even criminal. Weaknesses of Psychological Theory. There is a lack of reliability and consistency to do with the results of the study. Much of the research was based on people in prison so there is no evidence on people who haven't got caught for their crimes or a control group. Research relies on self report measures of the personality meaning that people could be biased or they could lie. There is a focus on offender and the general population but the latter includes un-convicted offenders too. What is Marxism? Marxism is a social structure theory where the bourgouise are the ruling higher class who commit crimes but they do not get prosecuted or found out about them as much as the proteriacts (disadvantaged social class) do. Maxists also say that capitalism is the route cause of divisions in society. Marxism Strengths Capitalism encourages competitiveness and therefore competition between social classes- most crimes simply result in class conflicts. Crimes change from society to society depending on the economic base (capitalism). Crime does not come from moral or biological defects but defects within the social structure. It says that proteriacts commit crime because they are poor. Marxism Weaknesses It does not look at other options for causes of crime it might not be because of capitalism it may be due to other factors. Not all poor people commit crimes, and not all capitalist societies have high rates of crime including Japan and Switzerland. It ignores the relationship betyween crime and other inequalities like gender and ethnicity. An example of this would be honour crime as it is committed as someone brings shame upon the family not because of economically motivated crimes. Functionalism Theory This is where crime is inevitable in society, it is needed to keep society functioning correctly. It only becomes dysfunctional when crime rates are too high or too low. Crime brings society together like the case of Shannon Matthews as the people of the Moorside estate went out looking for her and held vigils. 14 Strengths of Functionalism There are shared norms and values by society which keep to the status quo, and everyone in society has to accept their roles in this. Society is integrated, meaning if someone does something wrong the whole of society will be affected by it. 15