Comprehensive Study Guide for Introduction to Criminology Exam- 100% Accurate Questions & Answers |2025 Edition |

Comprehensive Study Guide for Introduction to Criminology Exam- 100% Accurate Questions & Answers |2025 Edition | Explain how strain theory accounts for deviant behavior in societies with high economic inequality. Strain theory suggests that individuals in societies with significant economic disparities experience pressure to achieve socially accepted goals, such as wealth, without having equal access to legitimate means, leading to deviance. Discuss the role of moral panic in shaping public perceptions of crime and its implications for criminology. Moral panic exaggerates societal fears about certain behaviors or groups, often influencing public policy and diverting attention from underlying structural issues in crime. Evaluate how the classical school of criminology influenced the development of modern criminal justice systems. The classical school emphasized rational choice, free will, and proportionate punishment, laying the foundation for contemporary justice systems' focus on deterrence and due process. Analyze the implications of intersectionality in understanding crime patterns and victimization. Intersectionality highlights how overlapping social categories, like race, gender, and class, shape individuals' experiences with crime, both as offenders and victims. How does labeling theory challenge traditional views on criminality, and what are its policy implications? Labeling theory argues that societal reactions and labels, rather than inherent behavior, significantly shape a person’s criminal identity, suggesting reforms in how justice systems manage stigmatization. Critique the effectiveness of restorative justice compared to punitive justice models in addressing recidivism. 1 Restorative justice focuses on reconciliation and rehabilitation, often proving more effective in reducing recidivism by addressing the root causes of crime and fostering accountability. Discuss how the social disorganization theory explains the concentration of crime in urban neighborhoods. Social disorganization theory attributes high crime rates to the breakdown of community structures, weak social networks, and lack of collective efficacy in certain urban areas. Evaluate the impact of broken windows theory on law enforcement practices and community relations. Broken windows theory led to proactive policing strategies but has faced criticism for contributing to over-policing and strained relations in marginalized communities. How do critical criminologists view the relationship between capitalism and crime? Critical criminologists argue that capitalism inherently creates inequalities, leading to crimes by the oppressed and institutional crimes by the powerful to maintain control. Examine the role of opportunity structures in shaping white-collar criminal behavior. Opportunity structures provide the means and settings for individuals in privileged positions to commit white-collar crimes, such as fraud, often escaping the scrutiny applied to street crimes. How has feminist criminology reshaped our understanding of female criminality? Feminist criminology emphasizes the role of patriarchy, gender inequality, and systemic biases in shaping the experiences and behaviors of women in the criminal justice system. Assess the challenges in measuring crime accurately using official crime statistics. Official crime statistics often underrepresent actual crime levels due to underreporting, discrepancies in law enforcement practices, and societal biases. Explain the concept of situational crime prevention and its application in reducing crime rates. Situational crime prevention focuses on reducing opportunities for crime through environmental design, target hardening, and increasing surveillance to deter potential offenders. 2 How do sociobiological theories explain criminal behavior, and what are their limitations? Sociobiological theories suggest that genetic and evolutionary factors influence criminal tendencies, but they are criticized for oversimplifying behavior and neglecting social contexts. Explore the concept of state crime and its implications for criminological research. State crime involves illegal or harmful actions perpetrated by government officials or agencies, challenging criminologists to address power dynamics and institutional accountability. Discuss the ethical dilemmas associated with covert research methods in criminology. Covert research raises concerns about informed consent, potential harm to participants, and the researcher’s role in ethically navigating their findings. Analyze the role of media in constructing stereotypes about crime and criminals. Media often amplifies sensational crimes and perpetuates stereotypes, influencing public perceptions and policy decisions disproportionately. Evaluate how cybercrime challenges traditional criminological theories. Cybercrime disrupts conventional theories by introducing global, borderless crimes that rely on technology, necessitating new frameworks for understanding and prevention. What are the limitations of rational choice theory in explaining impulsive criminal acts? Rational choice theory assumes deliberate decision-making, which fails to account for impulsive crimes driven by emotions or situational pressures. Examine the intersection of race and policing practices in modern criminology. Studies reveal systemic biases in policing that disproportionately affect racial minorities, raising concerns about discrimination and justice. Discuss the criminological implications of mass incarceration in the United States. 3 Mass incarceration reflects structural inequalities and punitive policies, exacerbating social divisions and undermining rehabilitation efforts. How does Marxist criminology critique the role of law in perpetuating class divisions? Marxist criminology argues that laws often serve the interests of the ruling class by criminalizing behaviors associated with the working class and protecting elite privileges. Explore how life-course theories provide insights into desistance from crime. Life-course theories emphasize the role of turning points, such as stable employment or relationships, in steering individuals away from criminal behavior. Critique the impact of globalization on transnational crime networks. Globalization facilitates transnational crime by enhancing communication, transportation, and f inancial systems that criminal organizations exploit. Discuss the criminological significance of environmental crimes in contemporary society. Environmental crimes, such as illegal dumping or deforestation, pose global challenges requiring criminologists to address corporate accountability and regulatory enforcement. Evaluate the role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policies. Public opinion heavily influences policies, often leading to reactive measures like harsher sentencing, which may not align with evidence-based approaches. How do cultural criminologists explain the relationship between identity and deviant subcultures? Cultural criminologists highlight how deviant subcultures create shared identities and resistance against mainstream societal norms. Examine the role of predictive policing algorithms in modern criminology and their ethical concerns. Predictive policing uses data to anticipate crime patterns but raises ethical issues regarding bias, privacy, and the potential for discriminatory practices. 4 Analyze how urbanization has historically influenced crime rates and patterns. Urbanization often correlates with increased crime due to anonymity, socioeconomic disparities, and concentrated populations. Crime Human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of the Federal Government, a State, or local jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws. 4 Perspectives of Crime Criminalize Legalistic, Political, Sociological, and Psychological To make illegal. Statute A formal written enactment of a legislative body. Deviant Behavior Consensus Perspective Conflict Perspective Criminologist Human activity that violates social norms. Everyone agrees its wrong. Different groups agree its wrong. Studies crime, criminals, and criminal behavior. Criminalist Criminology Social Policy Criminal Justice Use evidence to solve crimes; Investigate Study of crime and criminals and the causes of crime. A governments incentive, program, or plan intended to address problems in society. The scientific study of crime, the criminal law, and components of the criminal justice system, including the police, courts, and corrections. 5 Social Problems Perspective (macro approach). Social Responsibility Perspective Belief that crime is a manifestation of underlying social problems Individuals are responsible for their own behavior and they choose crime over law abiding courses of action (micro approach). Areas of Criminology Penology, Victimization, Law & Society, Crime Statistics, Theory Development, Criminal Behavior Systems Felony A crime punishable by imprisonment for more than one year or death. Misdemeanor Mala in Se Mala Prohibita 4 Criteria of Crime A crime punishable by a fine or sentence to a local prison for less than one year. Knows crimes are wrong (ex. Murder). Wrong just because the law says it's bad. Prohibited by Law: Behavior/Conduct Actur Reus (Guilty Act) Social Harm (Not just phsyical) Mens Rea (Intent, Guilty Mind) For a crime to be committed: Elements of the Criminal Law Specificity: Law has to be specific Uniformity: No ones above the law Purpose, Knowledge, Negligence, Recklessness Politicality Penal Sanction: Some form of penalty by the state 6 National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) An annual survey of selected American households conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics to determine the extent of criminal victimization-especially unreported victimization-in the United States Limitations of NCVS Embellishment/ miss reporting, Embarrassment/ Not wanting to report crime, Definitions of crime doesn't go with official definitions Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR) A federal bureau of Investigation summation of crime statitics tallied anually and conspiring primarily of data on crimes reported to the police and on arrests. Limitations of UCR Not everything is reported, Underestimates Crime, Hierarchy Rule (Only major crimes Reported when multiple occur), Emphasis on street crime, inconsistent participation, Different definitions of crimes, Police Practices may differ National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) A crime-reporting system in which each separate offense in a crime is described, including data describing the offender(s), victim(s), and property. Limitations of NIBRS Self Reporting Surveys Implementation Learn about individual factors and criminality. Limitations: Memory Decay, Relay on samples from youth Research Process Experimental Quasi- experimental Problem Identification, Research Design, Data Collection, Review Data Randomization Statistical Methods Data Collection Techniques Surveys, Experiments, Case Study, Participant Observation 7 Qualitative Quantitative Review Data Case Studies/ Participant info Numbers, Learn a lot Mean,Median, Mode, Can it be applied to society Measurement Issues Internal Validity External Validity Internal Validity Threats Reliability, Validity (Causal) Responsible for the outcome Generalizability History, Maturation, Testing, Instrumentation, Statistical Regression, Differential Selection (Selection Bias), Attrition External Validity Threats Reactive Effects of Testing & Experimental Arrangments, Self Selection, Multiple- Treatment interference Purpose of a Theory 4 Elements of Causation Spuriousness Components of Theory Describe, Explain, Predict, Control Event Correlation, Theoretical Rational, Time Sequence, Asbence of Theoretical Constructs, Propositions, Level of Analysis, Explanatory Scope August Comte's Progression of Knowledge Theoretical Stage Theoretical, Metaphysical, Scientific Crime caused by other worldly forces (religious/theologies) 8 Metaphysical Stage Scientific Stage Criminal behavior is freely chosen; rationality & intelligence Crime is beyond our control; biological, psychological, & sociological factors; scientific method to test crime Evidence Based Criminology Sumner's 3 Types of Norms Folkways Social Scientific Approach: evidence based criminology Folkways, Mores, Laws A time- honored custom, Tradition: won't hurt society. Ex. Don't pick nose in front of people Mores Laws Violation that can break up society: Murder Written Thomas Hobbs Wrote "Leviathan". He claimed that before society was organized, human life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short". Humans were not guided by reason and moral ideals but by a ruthless struggle for self preservation. He was for absolute power. John Locke English philosopher who advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property. Jean-Jacques Rousseau He was committed to individual freedom, but thought that rationalism and civilization corrupt man. His book, The Social Contract tells how social inequalities develop when people sign a social contract agreeing to surrender to the general will in order to be free. This creates a government as a necessary evil to carry out general will. If general will fails, people can replace it. Thomas Paine Revolutionary leader who wrote the pamphlet Common Sense (1776) arguing for American independence from Britain. In England he published The Rights of Man. 9 Cesare Becarria philosophe; promoted criminal justice; applied logic and reason to crim and punishment; felt that the justice system should focus on preserving social order instead of avenging crimes; called for the abolition of capital punishment and torture; Deterrence Theory: SWIFT, CERTAIN, SEVERITY Jeremy Bentham creator of Utilitarianism. Advocates "the greatest happiness for the greatest number." Used the Pain-Pleasure litmus test, rather than ideology 5 Key Principals of Classical Martinson's Article Rationality, Hedonism, Punishment, Human Rights, Due Process "Nothing Works Doctrine": Concluded with few exceptions, nothing works. Rehabilitation is abandoned! Rational Choice Theory Routines Activity Theory absence of capable guardian Situational Choice Theory happen (Soft Determinism) Displacement Conscious, Rational, Partially, Informed Choice Crimes occur when you have a motivated offender, suitable targets, and Opportunity for crime to occur and how to change it so it doesn't Crime prevention in one area cause crime in another area Difussion Crime prevention in one area cause crime prevention in another 3 Purposes of Punishment General Deterrence Deterrence, Retribution, Incapacitation Population 10 Specific Deterrence Individual 3 Studies of Deterrence Incapacitation Ecological, Perceptual, Policy Reduces crime by restricting opportunities Posivitism Behavior determined by natural forces 3 Types of Positivism Forces 3 Premises of Positivism 3 Theories of Biological Physiognomy Biological, Psychological, Sociological Measurement, Objectivity, Causality Physiognomy, Phrenology, Atavism Facial features tell about personality; created by JV Lavater Phrenology Atavism Cesare Lombroso Skull shape tells about personality; created by FJ Gall Criminals differ by body not just head; created by Cesare Lombroso Coroner who examined criminal vs. non criminal bodies. Wrote The Criminal Man: Theory of Atavism 3 Types of Criminal: Atavism Born: Atavism Insane: Idiots/Alcoholics/Mentally Insane/Not in right mind Criminaloids: Occasional E. Hooten superior" Compared prison inmaes with general population and found criminals were "inherently 11 William Sheldon's "Somatypes" Melomorph(muscular) 4 Methods to Study Genetics & Crime Genetics Adoption Studies Ectomorph(skinny), Endomorph(overweight), Family Studies, Twin Studies, Adoption studies, Behavioral Biological father's criminal activity is predictive of child's Both father's criminals: Strongly Predictive Peer Contagion Effect Environmental Factors Moffitt's Dual Taxonomy If you hang around with criminals, you can become a deliquent Alcohol/Drug Use, Nutrition/Toxins, Prenatal Environments, Head Injuries Life Course Persisiters (LCP): Life Offenders Adolescent Limited (AL): Normal part of adolescents, age out Psychological Perspectives of Crime Freud id: Pleasure principle ego: Reality principle Superego: Morality principle Freud: Crime Occurs? Psychoanalytic (Freud), Behavioral, Cognitive Ego or Superego are under developed Modeling Theory Aggressive thru: (Social Learning Theory) Learn by observing others Family Interactions, Environmental Experiences, Mass Media 12 Albert Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment Catharsis: Take out anger on object rather than person Gabriel Tarde Imitation: Individuals in close contact w/ one another tend to imitate one another--- Imitation moves down from the top (poor act like the rich)---New acts & behaviors tend to either reinforce or replace old ones Cognitive Theory Focuses on processes of perception & reasoning: how do we perceive & think about environment? how do these perceptions affect our decisions? Eysenck PEN Extrovert Neurototicism O.C.E.A.N. Psychotocism the acronym for the "big five" which include: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism Personality Traits Associated w/ ABS Low conscientiousness Attachment Theory: John Bowlby High neg. emotionality, Low constant, Low aggreableness, Secure Attachment Anxious Resistant Attachment: Uncertainty, Fearful Anxious Aviodant Attachment: Don't feel supported Self Control Theory Tendency to ignore long term effects of actions. Impulse control: resisit temptation Control over mind Control over performance: control behavior 13 Control over emotions IQ & Crime Psychopathology Neg. Correlated, Nature vs. Nurture, considerations: cultural bias & school failure Psychological disorder that causes stress: Mental Disorders & Mental Illness Psychopathy Personality Disorder marked by: Antisocial Behavior & Lack of Effect Depression & Delinquency 3 Explanations for Why: Positively Correlated Lack of Empathy for themselves & others Social Isolation Other Factors Mental Illness & Crime symptoms Mental Illness Crime Link Serious Violent Offenders often suffer from MI: Females have more serious Directly Correlated, How authority treats persons w/ MI/ Police Behavior, Social Problems, Environment Positivism & Punishment indeterminate sentencing) Positivism encourages Rehabilitation, Punishment tailored to Individual ( 2 Types of Crime Prevention Programs Primary: targeted to Population (DARE, Police) Secondary: Targeted to Known criminals/offenders Dark Figures of Crime Unreported crimes 14 Recidivism Heirachy Rule habitual relapse into crime Only most major crime is reported when multiple occur 15