China: conflict, crisis and change 1900-89
1 The fall of the Qing, Warlordism and chaos, 1900–34
The impact of the Boxer Uprising and late Qing reforms
Causes of the boxer uprising:
● I n 1898, Emperor Gangxu tried to modernise the government in an attempt to
end criticisms of the Qing dynasty such as making concessions to foreigners, so
he created ‘the Hundred Days Reform’ policy
○ This was strongly opposed by his deeply unpopular aunt,Empress
Dowager Cixiwho seized control of the governmentandendedthe
reforms
● External influences by foreign powerson China, and interference by foreign
powers
○ Foreign powers such as the British Empire, Japan, Germany and the USA
forced Chinato open up to trade, andinsistedthatChristian missionaries
be allowed into China, causingresentmentamongstthe people
● Cixiencouraged attackson foreigners toavoid criticismof imperial rule
● The Chinese hatred of‘foreign devils’, the Chinese feared their tech and hated
their religion, which helped fuel attacks on foreigners
○ They believed railways disturbed dragons and that telephone wires were
poisonous
Impact of the Boxer Uprising:
A
● severe financial penalty was put in place
● Western powers demanded £67 million in reparations to be paid over 39 years
● Westerners insisted on the destruction of China’s military fortifications and her
arsenals of weapons
● 10 officials were executed
● Foreign soldiers were to be placed permanently in and around Beijing
Reforms (1902-11):
● C ixi introduced reforms to modernise and re-establish China in an attempt to
save the dynasty
○ They were inspired by the self-strengthening movement which began in
the 1860s
● However most of these reforms failed
● They included:
Page150
, ○ E ducational reforms learning about the modern world instead of Chinese
classics
■ Ending the old exam system upset the officials who had spent
years training and preparing for them
■ Educated Chinese wanted a share in political power, but the
leadership did not allow this
○ Girls began to be educated
■ Threatened Chinese social traditions, which was very unpopular
○ Bans on Opium sales
■ Opium farmers complained about losing money because of the
bans
○ Promotion of industrialisation and nationalisation of the railways were
built with foreign help, to aim at economic transformation
■ It was an expensive reform, so the state borrowed money and
raised taxes: increasing inflation meaning food became more
expensive
○ The abolition of food binding, 1902
○ Introduction ofprovincial assemblieswith a limitedright to vote, 1909
○ Establishment of a‘New Army’underManchucontrol,1908
○ Establishment of a National Consultative Council to be a cabinet with
responsibility to advise the government 1910-11
○ Reform ofcivil service, 1905
The 1911 Revolution
Causes:
● Decay of the weak Qing government
○ In November 1908, both Emperor Guangxu and Empress Cixi died
○ The new emperor, Puyi was 2 years old, so Guangxu’s brother, Prince
Chun, ruled as regent and tried to save the dynasty by continuing with
Cixi’s reforms
○ However, Chun was inexperienced in ruling and could not provide strong
government
● The failure of political reforms
○ The reforms introduced in 1909-11 were too little and too late
○ The domination of the Manchus in the new National Consultative Council
increased Han resentment of Manchu rule
○ The limits placed on provincial assemblies (only 0.4% of the population
had the right to vote and changes were delayed for 9 years) led calls for
faster reforms
Page151
, ○ T he government’s failure of faster reforms led to increased support for
revolution
● The consequences of army reform
○ It was expensive so Chun increased taxes on tea, wine, salt and land,
which were on top of the taxes that had to be paid for the reparations
owed after the Boxer Uprising
■ This was damaging to the Qing dynasty, because heavy taxes were
unpopular with ordinary people
○ As part of the reforms, Prince Chun dismissed General Yuan Shikai, as he
believed he was becoming too powerful
■ Yuan Shikai declared he would get his revenge, creating a powerful
enemy to the regime
Spread of revolutionary ideas through Sun Yat-sen
●
○ Sun Yat-sen was educated in the West, brought the ideas ofnationalism
andrepublicanismback to China
○ He was a great opponent of China’s imperial government, believing that
the Qing had to be overthrown in order for China to modernise
○ He was forced into exile in years 1895-1911, because of his
anti-government views, but this did not stop his ideas from spreading
○ They were especially popular among young Chinese men who travelled to
Japan to complete their education, after scholarships were introduced by
the government in educational reforms
● Growing resentment over control of China’s railways
○ Nationalisation (takeover by the state of private companies and
businesses) increased Manchu control in the provinces and the owners
were angry that they did not receive full compensation for giving up
ownership, causing protests to break out
○ This anger was increased when the Qing government paid for the
expansion of railways by borrowing more money from the Western
powers, and grinding further concessions to foreign companies to build
the lines
■ Made the Qing look like they were partners with the ‘foreign devils’,
○ Railway Protection Societies were formed, which the government tried to
suppress with force
■ This intensified anti-Qing feeling and led to a series of violent
revolts across the country
Page152
, Events:
● T he revolution began by accident, on 9th October 1911, a young group of
revolutionaries in Hankou exploded a bomb that was being prepared for later
use
○ This provided a signal for a wider revolt by those whose unhappiness with
the Qing government now became revolutionary activity
● The following day, known in China as the ‘Double Tenth' soldiers in Wuhan began
a mutiny, spread to other provinces until all but three provinces south of Beijing
were in revolt
● They declared themselves to be independent from government control
○ In particular, Han soldiers revolted against Manchu control and
massacred Manchu troops
● The rebels declared their leader was Yuan Shikai, the former military general in
1909
● Yuan Shikai had agreed to put down the rebellion for the government, however
when he reached Wuhan he switched sides to support the rebels
○ He returned to Beijing to form aHangovernment under the condition that
he was made president instead of Sun Yat-sen
● Sun Yat-sen was still in exile when the revolution began
● In November, he was offered the position of president, and returned to China on
25th December 1911
● On the 1st January 1912, Sun Yat-sen took office and the Republic of China was
declared
● However, Yuan Shikai persuaded Sun Yat-sen to step down, Sun had no military
backing, so Yuan became president
○ Yuan promised that he would persuade the Manchus to abdicate and
replace the imperial system with a republic
■ This was significant concession because Yuan was not a
republican; he wanted to be emperor
● On 12th February 1912, Emperor Puyi (at 5 years old) abdicated, marking the end
of the Qing dynasty
Results and Yuan’s rule:
● I n China’s first elections, Sun Yat-sen’s party (the GMD/KMT1) won 43% of the
vote
○ Despite this, Yuan Shikai ignored the constitution, so real democracy
could not be established
● He responded by banning the KMT party, and ruled as a dictator from 1912-16
1
The same party but two different names because of translations
Page153
1 The fall of the Qing, Warlordism and chaos, 1900–34
The impact of the Boxer Uprising and late Qing reforms
Causes of the boxer uprising:
● I n 1898, Emperor Gangxu tried to modernise the government in an attempt to
end criticisms of the Qing dynasty such as making concessions to foreigners, so
he created ‘the Hundred Days Reform’ policy
○ This was strongly opposed by his deeply unpopular aunt,Empress
Dowager Cixiwho seized control of the governmentandendedthe
reforms
● External influences by foreign powerson China, and interference by foreign
powers
○ Foreign powers such as the British Empire, Japan, Germany and the USA
forced Chinato open up to trade, andinsistedthatChristian missionaries
be allowed into China, causingresentmentamongstthe people
● Cixiencouraged attackson foreigners toavoid criticismof imperial rule
● The Chinese hatred of‘foreign devils’, the Chinese feared their tech and hated
their religion, which helped fuel attacks on foreigners
○ They believed railways disturbed dragons and that telephone wires were
poisonous
Impact of the Boxer Uprising:
A
● severe financial penalty was put in place
● Western powers demanded £67 million in reparations to be paid over 39 years
● Westerners insisted on the destruction of China’s military fortifications and her
arsenals of weapons
● 10 officials were executed
● Foreign soldiers were to be placed permanently in and around Beijing
Reforms (1902-11):
● C ixi introduced reforms to modernise and re-establish China in an attempt to
save the dynasty
○ They were inspired by the self-strengthening movement which began in
the 1860s
● However most of these reforms failed
● They included:
Page150
, ○ E ducational reforms learning about the modern world instead of Chinese
classics
■ Ending the old exam system upset the officials who had spent
years training and preparing for them
■ Educated Chinese wanted a share in political power, but the
leadership did not allow this
○ Girls began to be educated
■ Threatened Chinese social traditions, which was very unpopular
○ Bans on Opium sales
■ Opium farmers complained about losing money because of the
bans
○ Promotion of industrialisation and nationalisation of the railways were
built with foreign help, to aim at economic transformation
■ It was an expensive reform, so the state borrowed money and
raised taxes: increasing inflation meaning food became more
expensive
○ The abolition of food binding, 1902
○ Introduction ofprovincial assemblieswith a limitedright to vote, 1909
○ Establishment of a‘New Army’underManchucontrol,1908
○ Establishment of a National Consultative Council to be a cabinet with
responsibility to advise the government 1910-11
○ Reform ofcivil service, 1905
The 1911 Revolution
Causes:
● Decay of the weak Qing government
○ In November 1908, both Emperor Guangxu and Empress Cixi died
○ The new emperor, Puyi was 2 years old, so Guangxu’s brother, Prince
Chun, ruled as regent and tried to save the dynasty by continuing with
Cixi’s reforms
○ However, Chun was inexperienced in ruling and could not provide strong
government
● The failure of political reforms
○ The reforms introduced in 1909-11 were too little and too late
○ The domination of the Manchus in the new National Consultative Council
increased Han resentment of Manchu rule
○ The limits placed on provincial assemblies (only 0.4% of the population
had the right to vote and changes were delayed for 9 years) led calls for
faster reforms
Page151
, ○ T he government’s failure of faster reforms led to increased support for
revolution
● The consequences of army reform
○ It was expensive so Chun increased taxes on tea, wine, salt and land,
which were on top of the taxes that had to be paid for the reparations
owed after the Boxer Uprising
■ This was damaging to the Qing dynasty, because heavy taxes were
unpopular with ordinary people
○ As part of the reforms, Prince Chun dismissed General Yuan Shikai, as he
believed he was becoming too powerful
■ Yuan Shikai declared he would get his revenge, creating a powerful
enemy to the regime
Spread of revolutionary ideas through Sun Yat-sen
●
○ Sun Yat-sen was educated in the West, brought the ideas ofnationalism
andrepublicanismback to China
○ He was a great opponent of China’s imperial government, believing that
the Qing had to be overthrown in order for China to modernise
○ He was forced into exile in years 1895-1911, because of his
anti-government views, but this did not stop his ideas from spreading
○ They were especially popular among young Chinese men who travelled to
Japan to complete their education, after scholarships were introduced by
the government in educational reforms
● Growing resentment over control of China’s railways
○ Nationalisation (takeover by the state of private companies and
businesses) increased Manchu control in the provinces and the owners
were angry that they did not receive full compensation for giving up
ownership, causing protests to break out
○ This anger was increased when the Qing government paid for the
expansion of railways by borrowing more money from the Western
powers, and grinding further concessions to foreign companies to build
the lines
■ Made the Qing look like they were partners with the ‘foreign devils’,
○ Railway Protection Societies were formed, which the government tried to
suppress with force
■ This intensified anti-Qing feeling and led to a series of violent
revolts across the country
Page152
, Events:
● T he revolution began by accident, on 9th October 1911, a young group of
revolutionaries in Hankou exploded a bomb that was being prepared for later
use
○ This provided a signal for a wider revolt by those whose unhappiness with
the Qing government now became revolutionary activity
● The following day, known in China as the ‘Double Tenth' soldiers in Wuhan began
a mutiny, spread to other provinces until all but three provinces south of Beijing
were in revolt
● They declared themselves to be independent from government control
○ In particular, Han soldiers revolted against Manchu control and
massacred Manchu troops
● The rebels declared their leader was Yuan Shikai, the former military general in
1909
● Yuan Shikai had agreed to put down the rebellion for the government, however
when he reached Wuhan he switched sides to support the rebels
○ He returned to Beijing to form aHangovernment under the condition that
he was made president instead of Sun Yat-sen
● Sun Yat-sen was still in exile when the revolution began
● In November, he was offered the position of president, and returned to China on
25th December 1911
● On the 1st January 1912, Sun Yat-sen took office and the Republic of China was
declared
● However, Yuan Shikai persuaded Sun Yat-sen to step down, Sun had no military
backing, so Yuan became president
○ Yuan promised that he would persuade the Manchus to abdicate and
replace the imperial system with a republic
■ This was significant concession because Yuan was not a
republican; he wanted to be emperor
● On 12th February 1912, Emperor Puyi (at 5 years old) abdicated, marking the end
of the Qing dynasty
Results and Yuan’s rule:
● I n China’s first elections, Sun Yat-sen’s party (the GMD/KMT1) won 43% of the
vote
○ Despite this, Yuan Shikai ignored the constitution, so real democracy
could not be established
● He responded by banning the KMT party, and ruled as a dictator from 1912-16
1
The same party but two different names because of translations
Page153
