Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
Organic chemistry - Hydrocarbons, Alkanes, Alkenes,
Alcohols, Carboxylic Acids, Esters, Polymers, Soaps,
Reactions, Uses & Fractional Distillation
General Information
Subject: Chemistry
Topic: Organic chemistry
Grade Secondary school
Content: Compact, exam-oriented learning script with all relevant
topics, questions and sample problems.
1
,Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
1. Introduction to Organic Chemistry
1.1 Definition and significance
1.2 Organic vs. inorganic compounds
1.3 Homologous series and functional groups
2. Hydrocarbons & Fossil Fuels
2.1 Definition and classification
2.2 Fossil fuel types: coal, crude oil, natural gas
3. Fractional Distillation
3.1 Process and purpose
3.2 Fraction products and properties
3.3 Industrial and domestic applications
4. Cracking of Hydrocarbons
4.1 Why cracking is needed
4.2 Reasons for cracking
4.3 Types: thermal and catalytic cracking
5. Alkanes
5.1 General formula and examples
5.2 Physical and chemical properties
5.3 Combustion reactions (complete and incomplete)
6. Alkenes
6.1 General formula and structure
6.2 Physical and chemical properties
6.3 Preparation methods
6.4 Reaction of alkenes
7. Alcohols (Alkanols)
7.1 Structure and types (-OH)
7.2 Uses of ethanol
7.3 Reactions: with sodium, oxygen, and acids
2
,Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
8. Carboxylic Acids
8.1 Structure and naming
8.2 Physical and chemical properties
8.3 Reactions with metals, bases, and carbonates
9. Esters
9.1 Formation from acids and alcohols
9.2 Naming and uses in perfumes and flavorings
10. Soaps & Saponification
10.1 Soap structure and mechanism
10.2 Soap vs. detergent
10.3 Alkaline hydrolysis (saponification reaction)
11. Polymers and Polymerization
11.1 The structure of polymers and monomers
11.2 Natural vs. synthetic polymers
11.3 Addition and condensation polymerization
12. Revision Questions and Exam Practice
12.1 Short-answer and application-based questions
12.2 Sample exam-style tasks on reactions and naming
3
,Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
1. Nature of organic chemistry
1. Define the term organic chemistry:
Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation
of carbon-containing compounds. All organic compounds contain carbon combined with other
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine and others. For simplicity, we will consider the simple
compounds of carbon such as oxides, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to be inorganic.
2. Difference between organic and inorganic compounds:
Organic compounds are molecules containing carbon atoms covalently bonded to hydrogen, oxygen,
or nitrogen atoms. These molecules are mainly found in nature and are derived or produced by living
organisms. Typical organic compounds therefore often include enzymes, proteins, DNA, RNA and
fuels. Inorganic compounds are produced from non-living components and generally contain no
carbon-hydrogen bonds, if any, carbon atoms. For this substances such as salts, metals, non-metals,
oxides, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are regarded as inorganic compounds.
3. Recognize properties of a homologous series:
-Define homologous series:
A homologous series is a group of chemicals which have similar chemical properties and can be
represented by a general formula. In addition, they usually all belong to the same functional group.
-Properties of a homologous series:
1. All members of the same homologous series have the same general molecular formula.
2. All members of the same homologous series show similar chemical reactions that may vary in
vigor and rate.
3. Similar methods of preparation apply to all the members of the same homologous series.
-Examples of a homologues series:
S. NO. Name of series Molecular formula
1. Alkane (-ane/ethane) CnH2n + 2
2. Alkene (-ene/ethane) CnH2n
3. Alkyne (-yne/ethyne) CnH2n - 2
4. Halo alkane (-halo/chloroethane) CnH2n + 1 X
5. Alcohol (-ol/ethanol) CnH2n + 2 O
6. Ether (-oxy -ane/methoxyethane) CnH2n + 2 O
7. Aldehyde (-al/ethanol) CnH2n O
8. Ketone (-one/propanone) CnH2n O
9. Carboxylic acid (-oic acid/ethanoic acid) CnH2n O2
10. Ester (-yl -oate/ethyl ethanoate) CnH2n O2
11. Amide (-amide/ethanamide) CnH2n + 1 NO
4
,Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
2. Hydrocarbons
1. The structure of hydrocarbons
1. Definition of hydrocarbons:
A compound made of only hydrogen and carbon.
2. Properties and uses of hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons are highly combustible and produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat when they are
burned. Therefore, hydrocarbons are highly effective as a source of fuel.
2. The structure of fossil fuels
1. Definition of fossil fuels:
Fuels made from ancient buried organisms. They are used to produce energy; in the home they are
burned to produce heat, in large power stations they are used to produce electricity and they are
also used to power engines. Furthermore, fossil fuels are non-renewable, because they take so long
to make they cannot be replaced once they are used.
2. Types of fossil fuels:
1. Coal:
A black or dark-brown combustible (flammable) mineral substance consisting of carbonized
vegetable matter, used as a fuel. It can be burned in power stations.
2. Crude oil/petroleum (mixture of hydrocarbons with different chain lengths that can be processed
into liquid fuels):
Crude oil is oil in its natural state before it has been processed or refined. It can be used for
transportation, heating and electricity generation, varied petroleum products, and plastics.
3. Natural gas:
Natural gas is usually a colorless highly flammable gaseous hydrocarbon consisting primarily of
methane and ethane. It is used in domestic boilers, cookers and Bunsen burners, as well as in some
power stations.
3. How are fossil fuels made:
Fossil fuels are formed when plants or animals are buried and covered by large amounts of mud
under intense pressure over millions of years.
5
, Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
3. Fractional distillation
1. Definition of fractional distillation:
The separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation.
Fractional distillation separates crude oil (unprocessed oil) into useful fractions.
2. The process of fractional distillation and how it can separate fossil fuels:
First, the crude oil is heated to vaporize it and is fed into the bottom of a distillation tower. The
resulting vapor then rises through the vertical column. As the gases rise through the tower, the
temperature decreases. As the temperature decreases, certain hydrocarbons begin to condense and
run off at different levels. Each fraction that condenses off at a certain level contains hydrocarbon
molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms. These boiling point allow several hydrocarbons
to be separated out in a single process. After this rough refinement, individual fuels may undergo
more refinement to remove any undesirable substances, or to improve the quality of the fuel
through cracking.
3. Uses of petroleum fractions from fractional distillation:
1. Refinery gas (20°C):
Methane and ethane are used directly as fuel, while propane and butane are liquefied in cylinders.
2. Petroleum gas (70°C):
It is used as a fuel in cars.
3. Naphtha (120°C):
This fraction is processed to make gasoline and plastics.
5. Kerosene (180°C):
It is used as jet fuel and paraffin for heating as well as lighting.
6. Diesel (260°C):
It is used for diesel engines.
7. Lubricating oil (300°C):
It is used to make petroleum and candles.
8. Heavy fuel oil (350°C):
It is used to make fuels for ships and factories.
9. Bitumen (360°C):
It is used to make asphalt.
6
Organic chemistry - Hydrocarbons, Alkanes, Alkenes,
Alcohols, Carboxylic Acids, Esters, Polymers, Soaps,
Reactions, Uses & Fractional Distillation
General Information
Subject: Chemistry
Topic: Organic chemistry
Grade Secondary school
Content: Compact, exam-oriented learning script with all relevant
topics, questions and sample problems.
1
,Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
1. Introduction to Organic Chemistry
1.1 Definition and significance
1.2 Organic vs. inorganic compounds
1.3 Homologous series and functional groups
2. Hydrocarbons & Fossil Fuels
2.1 Definition and classification
2.2 Fossil fuel types: coal, crude oil, natural gas
3. Fractional Distillation
3.1 Process and purpose
3.2 Fraction products and properties
3.3 Industrial and domestic applications
4. Cracking of Hydrocarbons
4.1 Why cracking is needed
4.2 Reasons for cracking
4.3 Types: thermal and catalytic cracking
5. Alkanes
5.1 General formula and examples
5.2 Physical and chemical properties
5.3 Combustion reactions (complete and incomplete)
6. Alkenes
6.1 General formula and structure
6.2 Physical and chemical properties
6.3 Preparation methods
6.4 Reaction of alkenes
7. Alcohols (Alkanols)
7.1 Structure and types (-OH)
7.2 Uses of ethanol
7.3 Reactions: with sodium, oxygen, and acids
2
,Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
8. Carboxylic Acids
8.1 Structure and naming
8.2 Physical and chemical properties
8.3 Reactions with metals, bases, and carbonates
9. Esters
9.1 Formation from acids and alcohols
9.2 Naming and uses in perfumes and flavorings
10. Soaps & Saponification
10.1 Soap structure and mechanism
10.2 Soap vs. detergent
10.3 Alkaline hydrolysis (saponification reaction)
11. Polymers and Polymerization
11.1 The structure of polymers and monomers
11.2 Natural vs. synthetic polymers
11.3 Addition and condensation polymerization
12. Revision Questions and Exam Practice
12.1 Short-answer and application-based questions
12.2 Sample exam-style tasks on reactions and naming
3
,Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
1. Nature of organic chemistry
1. Define the term organic chemistry:
Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation
of carbon-containing compounds. All organic compounds contain carbon combined with other
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine and others. For simplicity, we will consider the simple
compounds of carbon such as oxides, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to be inorganic.
2. Difference between organic and inorganic compounds:
Organic compounds are molecules containing carbon atoms covalently bonded to hydrogen, oxygen,
or nitrogen atoms. These molecules are mainly found in nature and are derived or produced by living
organisms. Typical organic compounds therefore often include enzymes, proteins, DNA, RNA and
fuels. Inorganic compounds are produced from non-living components and generally contain no
carbon-hydrogen bonds, if any, carbon atoms. For this substances such as salts, metals, non-metals,
oxides, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are regarded as inorganic compounds.
3. Recognize properties of a homologous series:
-Define homologous series:
A homologous series is a group of chemicals which have similar chemical properties and can be
represented by a general formula. In addition, they usually all belong to the same functional group.
-Properties of a homologous series:
1. All members of the same homologous series have the same general molecular formula.
2. All members of the same homologous series show similar chemical reactions that may vary in
vigor and rate.
3. Similar methods of preparation apply to all the members of the same homologous series.
-Examples of a homologues series:
S. NO. Name of series Molecular formula
1. Alkane (-ane/ethane) CnH2n + 2
2. Alkene (-ene/ethane) CnH2n
3. Alkyne (-yne/ethyne) CnH2n - 2
4. Halo alkane (-halo/chloroethane) CnH2n + 1 X
5. Alcohol (-ol/ethanol) CnH2n + 2 O
6. Ether (-oxy -ane/methoxyethane) CnH2n + 2 O
7. Aldehyde (-al/ethanol) CnH2n O
8. Ketone (-one/propanone) CnH2n O
9. Carboxylic acid (-oic acid/ethanoic acid) CnH2n O2
10. Ester (-yl -oate/ethyl ethanoate) CnH2n O2
11. Amide (-amide/ethanamide) CnH2n + 1 NO
4
,Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
2. Hydrocarbons
1. The structure of hydrocarbons
1. Definition of hydrocarbons:
A compound made of only hydrogen and carbon.
2. Properties and uses of hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons are highly combustible and produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat when they are
burned. Therefore, hydrocarbons are highly effective as a source of fuel.
2. The structure of fossil fuels
1. Definition of fossil fuels:
Fuels made from ancient buried organisms. They are used to produce energy; in the home they are
burned to produce heat, in large power stations they are used to produce electricity and they are
also used to power engines. Furthermore, fossil fuels are non-renewable, because they take so long
to make they cannot be replaced once they are used.
2. Types of fossil fuels:
1. Coal:
A black or dark-brown combustible (flammable) mineral substance consisting of carbonized
vegetable matter, used as a fuel. It can be burned in power stations.
2. Crude oil/petroleum (mixture of hydrocarbons with different chain lengths that can be processed
into liquid fuels):
Crude oil is oil in its natural state before it has been processed or refined. It can be used for
transportation, heating and electricity generation, varied petroleum products, and plastics.
3. Natural gas:
Natural gas is usually a colorless highly flammable gaseous hydrocarbon consisting primarily of
methane and ethane. It is used in domestic boilers, cookers and Bunsen burners, as well as in some
power stations.
3. How are fossil fuels made:
Fossil fuels are formed when plants or animals are buried and covered by large amounts of mud
under intense pressure over millions of years.
5
, Chemistry - Secondary school study sheets / Exam Preparation
3. Fractional distillation
1. Definition of fractional distillation:
The separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation.
Fractional distillation separates crude oil (unprocessed oil) into useful fractions.
2. The process of fractional distillation and how it can separate fossil fuels:
First, the crude oil is heated to vaporize it and is fed into the bottom of a distillation tower. The
resulting vapor then rises through the vertical column. As the gases rise through the tower, the
temperature decreases. As the temperature decreases, certain hydrocarbons begin to condense and
run off at different levels. Each fraction that condenses off at a certain level contains hydrocarbon
molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms. These boiling point allow several hydrocarbons
to be separated out in a single process. After this rough refinement, individual fuels may undergo
more refinement to remove any undesirable substances, or to improve the quality of the fuel
through cracking.
3. Uses of petroleum fractions from fractional distillation:
1. Refinery gas (20°C):
Methane and ethane are used directly as fuel, while propane and butane are liquefied in cylinders.
2. Petroleum gas (70°C):
It is used as a fuel in cars.
3. Naphtha (120°C):
This fraction is processed to make gasoline and plastics.
5. Kerosene (180°C):
It is used as jet fuel and paraffin for heating as well as lighting.
6. Diesel (260°C):
It is used for diesel engines.
7. Lubricating oil (300°C):
It is used to make petroleum and candles.
8. Heavy fuel oil (350°C):
It is used to make fuels for ships and factories.
9. Bitumen (360°C):
It is used to make asphalt.
6
