,SOLUTION MANUAL FOR Research Methods for
Criminal Justice and Criminology 9th Edition by
Michael G. Maxfield
Notes
1- The file is chapter after chapter.
2- We have shown you few pages sample.
3- The file contains all Appendix and Excel sheet
if it exists.
4- We have all what you need, we make update
at every time. There are many new editions
waiting you.
5- If you think you purchased the wrong file You
can contact us at every time, we can replace it
with true one.
Our email:
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 1: An Introduction to Criminal Justice Inquiry
Solution and Answer Guide
MICHAEL G. MAXFIELD, EARL R. BABBIE, AMIE SCHUCK, RESEARCH METHODS FOR CRIMINAL
JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY, 9TH EDITION, © 2025, 9780357763735; CHAPTER 1: AN
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review Questions and Exercises .............................................................................................. 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Review the common errors of personal inquiry discussed in this chapter. Search the news and
find an article about a crime- or justice-related problem that illustrates one or more of those
errors. Discuss how a criminal justice researcher would avoid making that error.
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary depending on the source selected. The article should accurately
demonstrate one of the errors of personal inquiry noted in the text (inaccurate observation,
overgeneralization, selective observation, illogical reasoning, ideology, and politics). In their
response, students should discuss a safeguard that corresponds to the error found in the article.
For instance, if a student found a news article that used a poll with a small sample size to indicate
the existence of a trend, the student could argue that the author has made the error of
overgeneralization. The safeguard for overgeneralization is using a sufficiently large sample size.
The student could propose that the researcher increases the sample size for the study to reduce
the chances of overgeneralization in analysis. Students may also include in their response the
details in the article that led them to believe an error of personal inquiry was made.
2. Pick a crime- or justice-related problem that you are interested in studying and list the types of
questions you would want answered in an exploratory or descriptive research project on that
topic.
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary depending on the topic selected, in tandem with whether they choose
an exploratory or descriptive research approach. For example, if a student chose the topic of
juvenile delinquency and the descriptive approach, they could ask questions like
How many male children are in the juvenile justice system (JJS)? Female?
What is the racial composition of children in the JJS?
What is the average income of families whose children are in the JJS?
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 1
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 1: An Introduction to Criminal Justice Inquiry
3. Identify the robbery rate for a city close to your college or university. Briefly discuss examples of
explanatory research as they relate to the robbery rate.
Solution:
For this exercise, students’ answers will depend on the location selected. In taking an explanatory
research approach to the robbery rate, most students will provide examples where the research
questions center around reasons why the rate is what it is; whether high, low, or in-between. This
could include questions of geography, population, and socioeconomic status, among others.
4. Often, things we think are true and supported by considerable experience and evidence turn out
not to be true, or at least not true with the certainty we expected. Criminal justice seems
especially vulnerable to this phenomenon, perhaps because crime and criminal justice policy are
so often the subjects of mass and popular media attention. If news stories, movies, and television
shows all point to growing gang- or drug-related violence, it is easy to assume that these are real
problems identified by systematic study. Choose a criminal justice topic or claim that’s currently
prominent in news stories or entertainment. Using Google Scholar or some other bibliographic
tool, search the Internet for two research studies that examine the topic in systematic ways
described in this chapter. Briefly summarize the studies’ findings.
Solution:
Students’ responses will vary depending on the topic choice and their selection of corresponding
research studies. Answers should include a brief summary of each study’s findings. Students may
also discuss how these findings either support or refute common beliefs about criminal justice
topics in mass and popular media.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 2
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 2: Foundations of Criminal Justice research
Solution and Answer Guide
MICHAEL G. MAXFIELD, EARL R. BABBIE, AMIE SCHUCK, RESEARCH METHODS FOR CRIMINAL
JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY, 9TH EDITION, © 2025, 9780357763735; CHAPTER 2: FOUNDATIONS
OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review Questions and Exercises .............................................................................................. 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. In his book Crime and Everyday Life, Marcus Felson (2002) expands on “routine activity theory”
as an explanation for why crime occurs. According to this theory, crimes happen when three
elements come together: (a) a motivated offender, (b) an attractive victim, and (c) absence of
capable guardians. Select one property crime and one violent crime. Apply routine activity theory
to explain examples of each. Are you using theory in an inductive or deductive way?
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary depending upon the selected property crime and violent crime, as
well as their understanding of routine activity theory.
In each crime-type scenario, students should identify the motivated offender, the attractive victim,
and the absence of capable guardian. They should then explain how they relate to each other in
the context of Felson’s routine activity theory.
Concerning inductive versus deductive reasoning, this exercise asks students to apply a theory
(routine activity theory) to individual examples (one violent crime and one property crime). It
involves applying a general theory to a specific case, serving as an example of deductive
reasoning.
2. Go to the Crime Solutions website (https://crimesolutions.ojp.gov/) and find a program.
Summarize the program theory. In your summary be sure to describe how the program is
designed to reduce the problem.
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary greatly depending upon the selected program. In their summary,
students should note the problem to be reduced or solved by the program, the theory used to
guide the program, how the program was designed to affect the problem, and whether the
program was effective.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 1
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 2: Foundations of Criminal Justice research
3. The Promoting Alternative THinking Strategies (PATHS) program is designed to develop emotional
and social competencies to reduce aggression and behavior problems in children between the ages of
5 and 12. Based on your understanding of theory and hypotheses as discussed in this chapter, (a)
describe how emotional and social skills might be related to juvenile delinquency and (b) propose a
hypothesis that you could test.
Solution:
In their answer, students should explain the connection between emotional and social skills and
delinquency. From those ideas, they should then form a hypothesis for testing.
Sample response: Emotional and social skills are demonstrated in the behavior of children.
Children with lower levels of emotional and social skills may be aggressive and act out. These
behaviors may evolve to juvenile delinquency. We could test the following hypothesis: Juveniles
who undergo the PATHS program are less likely to be delinquent than those who do not.
4. In this chapter, we discuss the relationship between urban design and crime. Thinking about your
college campus or city, articulate a hypothesis about the influence of a particular geographic
characteristic on a specific type of crime. Identify the variables in your hypothesis and each of the
variable’s attributes.
Solution:
Student responses will vary depending upon the selection of college campus or city, geographic
characteristic, and crime. The hypothesis should indicate how the geographic characteristic
increases or reduces the prevalence of the crime and why. The attributes should logically
correspond with the variable given.
Sample response: Campuses with bike lockers have fewer bikes stolen than those without.
Variable: type of bike security; attributes: bike lockers, bike locks, no bike security measures.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 2
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 3: Ethics and Criminal Justice Research
Solution and Answer Guide
MICHAEL G. MAXFIELD, EARL R. BABBIE, AMIE SCHUCK, RESEARCH METHODS FOR CRIMINAL
JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY, 9TH EDITION, © 2025, 9780357763735; CHAPTER 3: ETHICS AND
CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review Questions and Exercises .............................................................................................. 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Obtain a copy of the American Society of Criminology (2016) code of ethics at this website:
https://asc41.com/wp-content/uploads/ASC_Code_of_Ethics.pdf. Read the document
carefully. How would the code apply to Laud Humphreys’ tearoom research? What about the
prison simulation? Especially note the “General Principles” section beginning on page 1.
Solution:
Sample response: In Humphreys’ work, he accessed government records to find the participants’
homes and surveyed them there. This would surely breach the ASC’s first general principle,
which prohibits harassment. His procedure of acting as a lookout for the subjects and then going
to their homes put the subjects in jeopardy or danger, a breach of the second general principle,
and is dishonest to the subjects, who did not know their lookout was a researcher – a breach of
the third general principle.
In the Stanford Prison Experiment, the subjects could not foresee the extent of possible harm in
order to agree to it because the researchers permitted the “guards” to change the rules during the
simulation. This would violate the second general principle where potential harms must be
disclosed to the subjects.
2. Review the box “Ethics and Juvenile Gang Members,” noting that Decker and Van Winkle
developed an informed consent form for their participants. Try your hand at preparing such a
form, keeping in mind the various ethical principles discussed in this chapter.
Solution:
Responses from students will vary. Each student should construct their own informed consent
form for a hypothetical research project. It may resemble the example in the textbook. Students
should incorporate the ethical principles discussed in the chapter, like designating whether the
data will be anonymous or confidential, the avoidance of harm, voluntary participation, etc.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 1
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 4: General Issues in Research Design
Solution and Answer Guide
MICHAEL G. MAXFIELD, EARL R. BABBIE, AMIE SCHUCK, RESEARCH METHODS FOR CRIMINAL
JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY, 9TH EDITION, © 2025, 9780357763735; CHAPTER 4: GENERAL
ISSUES IN RESEARCH DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review Questions and Exercises .............................................................................................. 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Discuss one of the following statements in terms of what you have learned about the criteria of
causation and threats to the validity of causal inference. What cause-and-effect relationships are
implied? What are some alternative explanations?
a. Guns don’t kill people; people kill people.
b. Capital punishment prevents murder.
c. Marijuana is a gateway drug that leads to the use of other drugs
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary depending upon the choice of statement and alternative explanations
incorporated. In their answer, students should address the three criteria of causality: correlation,
time-order, and non-spuriousness in relation to the causal inference stated in options a – c.
Alternative explanations should involve logical relationships between the cause and effect.
2. Several times, we have discussed the relationship between drug use and crime. Describe the
conditions that would lead us to conclude that drug use is
a. A necessary cause
b. A sufficient cause
c. A necessary and sufficient cause
Solution:
Sample response
a) If drug use was a necessary cause for crime, drug use would be required to occur before a
crime could be perpetrated, but drug use could happen without crime resulting. For instance,
prior to committing a crime a person would have had to have used drugs; however, just
because a person used drugs does not mean a crime was destined or had to occur.
b) If drug use was a sufficient cause of crime, drug use would more or less guarantee that crime
would occur, but there may also be other reasons why crime occurs. In this case, the use of
drugs would almost guarantee that a crime would then be committed, but it is also possible
that a crime could occur because of necessity, passion, or another reason.
c) If drug use was a necessary and sufficient cause of crime, drug use must be present for
crime to occur and any time there was drug use a crime would result. In this scenario, a crime
would not occur unless the perpetrator used drugs, and anytime a person used drugs they
would in turn commit a crime.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 1
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Criminal Justice and Criminology 9th Edition by
Michael G. Maxfield
Notes
1- The file is chapter after chapter.
2- We have shown you few pages sample.
3- The file contains all Appendix and Excel sheet
if it exists.
4- We have all what you need, we make update
at every time. There are many new editions
waiting you.
5- If you think you purchased the wrong file You
can contact us at every time, we can replace it
with true one.
Our email:
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 1: An Introduction to Criminal Justice Inquiry
Solution and Answer Guide
MICHAEL G. MAXFIELD, EARL R. BABBIE, AMIE SCHUCK, RESEARCH METHODS FOR CRIMINAL
JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY, 9TH EDITION, © 2025, 9780357763735; CHAPTER 1: AN
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review Questions and Exercises .............................................................................................. 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Review the common errors of personal inquiry discussed in this chapter. Search the news and
find an article about a crime- or justice-related problem that illustrates one or more of those
errors. Discuss how a criminal justice researcher would avoid making that error.
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary depending on the source selected. The article should accurately
demonstrate one of the errors of personal inquiry noted in the text (inaccurate observation,
overgeneralization, selective observation, illogical reasoning, ideology, and politics). In their
response, students should discuss a safeguard that corresponds to the error found in the article.
For instance, if a student found a news article that used a poll with a small sample size to indicate
the existence of a trend, the student could argue that the author has made the error of
overgeneralization. The safeguard for overgeneralization is using a sufficiently large sample size.
The student could propose that the researcher increases the sample size for the study to reduce
the chances of overgeneralization in analysis. Students may also include in their response the
details in the article that led them to believe an error of personal inquiry was made.
2. Pick a crime- or justice-related problem that you are interested in studying and list the types of
questions you would want answered in an exploratory or descriptive research project on that
topic.
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary depending on the topic selected, in tandem with whether they choose
an exploratory or descriptive research approach. For example, if a student chose the topic of
juvenile delinquency and the descriptive approach, they could ask questions like
How many male children are in the juvenile justice system (JJS)? Female?
What is the racial composition of children in the JJS?
What is the average income of families whose children are in the JJS?
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 1
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 1: An Introduction to Criminal Justice Inquiry
3. Identify the robbery rate for a city close to your college or university. Briefly discuss examples of
explanatory research as they relate to the robbery rate.
Solution:
For this exercise, students’ answers will depend on the location selected. In taking an explanatory
research approach to the robbery rate, most students will provide examples where the research
questions center around reasons why the rate is what it is; whether high, low, or in-between. This
could include questions of geography, population, and socioeconomic status, among others.
4. Often, things we think are true and supported by considerable experience and evidence turn out
not to be true, or at least not true with the certainty we expected. Criminal justice seems
especially vulnerable to this phenomenon, perhaps because crime and criminal justice policy are
so often the subjects of mass and popular media attention. If news stories, movies, and television
shows all point to growing gang- or drug-related violence, it is easy to assume that these are real
problems identified by systematic study. Choose a criminal justice topic or claim that’s currently
prominent in news stories or entertainment. Using Google Scholar or some other bibliographic
tool, search the Internet for two research studies that examine the topic in systematic ways
described in this chapter. Briefly summarize the studies’ findings.
Solution:
Students’ responses will vary depending on the topic choice and their selection of corresponding
research studies. Answers should include a brief summary of each study’s findings. Students may
also discuss how these findings either support or refute common beliefs about criminal justice
topics in mass and popular media.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 2
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 2: Foundations of Criminal Justice research
Solution and Answer Guide
MICHAEL G. MAXFIELD, EARL R. BABBIE, AMIE SCHUCK, RESEARCH METHODS FOR CRIMINAL
JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY, 9TH EDITION, © 2025, 9780357763735; CHAPTER 2: FOUNDATIONS
OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review Questions and Exercises .............................................................................................. 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. In his book Crime and Everyday Life, Marcus Felson (2002) expands on “routine activity theory”
as an explanation for why crime occurs. According to this theory, crimes happen when three
elements come together: (a) a motivated offender, (b) an attractive victim, and (c) absence of
capable guardians. Select one property crime and one violent crime. Apply routine activity theory
to explain examples of each. Are you using theory in an inductive or deductive way?
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary depending upon the selected property crime and violent crime, as
well as their understanding of routine activity theory.
In each crime-type scenario, students should identify the motivated offender, the attractive victim,
and the absence of capable guardian. They should then explain how they relate to each other in
the context of Felson’s routine activity theory.
Concerning inductive versus deductive reasoning, this exercise asks students to apply a theory
(routine activity theory) to individual examples (one violent crime and one property crime). It
involves applying a general theory to a specific case, serving as an example of deductive
reasoning.
2. Go to the Crime Solutions website (https://crimesolutions.ojp.gov/) and find a program.
Summarize the program theory. In your summary be sure to describe how the program is
designed to reduce the problem.
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary greatly depending upon the selected program. In their summary,
students should note the problem to be reduced or solved by the program, the theory used to
guide the program, how the program was designed to affect the problem, and whether the
program was effective.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 1
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 2: Foundations of Criminal Justice research
3. The Promoting Alternative THinking Strategies (PATHS) program is designed to develop emotional
and social competencies to reduce aggression and behavior problems in children between the ages of
5 and 12. Based on your understanding of theory and hypotheses as discussed in this chapter, (a)
describe how emotional and social skills might be related to juvenile delinquency and (b) propose a
hypothesis that you could test.
Solution:
In their answer, students should explain the connection between emotional and social skills and
delinquency. From those ideas, they should then form a hypothesis for testing.
Sample response: Emotional and social skills are demonstrated in the behavior of children.
Children with lower levels of emotional and social skills may be aggressive and act out. These
behaviors may evolve to juvenile delinquency. We could test the following hypothesis: Juveniles
who undergo the PATHS program are less likely to be delinquent than those who do not.
4. In this chapter, we discuss the relationship between urban design and crime. Thinking about your
college campus or city, articulate a hypothesis about the influence of a particular geographic
characteristic on a specific type of crime. Identify the variables in your hypothesis and each of the
variable’s attributes.
Solution:
Student responses will vary depending upon the selection of college campus or city, geographic
characteristic, and crime. The hypothesis should indicate how the geographic characteristic
increases or reduces the prevalence of the crime and why. The attributes should logically
correspond with the variable given.
Sample response: Campuses with bike lockers have fewer bikes stolen than those without.
Variable: type of bike security; attributes: bike lockers, bike locks, no bike security measures.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 2
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 3: Ethics and Criminal Justice Research
Solution and Answer Guide
MICHAEL G. MAXFIELD, EARL R. BABBIE, AMIE SCHUCK, RESEARCH METHODS FOR CRIMINAL
JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY, 9TH EDITION, © 2025, 9780357763735; CHAPTER 3: ETHICS AND
CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review Questions and Exercises .............................................................................................. 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Obtain a copy of the American Society of Criminology (2016) code of ethics at this website:
https://asc41.com/wp-content/uploads/ASC_Code_of_Ethics.pdf. Read the document
carefully. How would the code apply to Laud Humphreys’ tearoom research? What about the
prison simulation? Especially note the “General Principles” section beginning on page 1.
Solution:
Sample response: In Humphreys’ work, he accessed government records to find the participants’
homes and surveyed them there. This would surely breach the ASC’s first general principle,
which prohibits harassment. His procedure of acting as a lookout for the subjects and then going
to their homes put the subjects in jeopardy or danger, a breach of the second general principle,
and is dishonest to the subjects, who did not know their lookout was a researcher – a breach of
the third general principle.
In the Stanford Prison Experiment, the subjects could not foresee the extent of possible harm in
order to agree to it because the researchers permitted the “guards” to change the rules during the
simulation. This would violate the second general principle where potential harms must be
disclosed to the subjects.
2. Review the box “Ethics and Juvenile Gang Members,” noting that Decker and Van Winkle
developed an informed consent form for their participants. Try your hand at preparing such a
form, keeping in mind the various ethical principles discussed in this chapter.
Solution:
Responses from students will vary. Each student should construct their own informed consent
form for a hypothetical research project. It may resemble the example in the textbook. Students
should incorporate the ethical principles discussed in the chapter, like designating whether the
data will be anonymous or confidential, the avoidance of harm, voluntary participation, etc.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 1
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
, Solution and Answer Guide: Michael G. Maxfield, Earl R. Babbie, Amie Schuck, Research Methods for Criminal
Justice and Criminology, 9th Edition, © 2025, 9780357763735; Chapter 4: General Issues in Research Design
Solution and Answer Guide
MICHAEL G. MAXFIELD, EARL R. BABBIE, AMIE SCHUCK, RESEARCH METHODS FOR CRIMINAL
JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY, 9TH EDITION, © 2025, 9780357763735; CHAPTER 4: GENERAL
ISSUES IN RESEARCH DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Review Questions and Exercises .............................................................................................. 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. Discuss one of the following statements in terms of what you have learned about the criteria of
causation and threats to the validity of causal inference. What cause-and-effect relationships are
implied? What are some alternative explanations?
a. Guns don’t kill people; people kill people.
b. Capital punishment prevents murder.
c. Marijuana is a gateway drug that leads to the use of other drugs
Solution:
Students’ answers will vary depending upon the choice of statement and alternative explanations
incorporated. In their answer, students should address the three criteria of causality: correlation,
time-order, and non-spuriousness in relation to the causal inference stated in options a – c.
Alternative explanations should involve logical relationships between the cause and effect.
2. Several times, we have discussed the relationship between drug use and crime. Describe the
conditions that would lead us to conclude that drug use is
a. A necessary cause
b. A sufficient cause
c. A necessary and sufficient cause
Solution:
Sample response
a) If drug use was a necessary cause for crime, drug use would be required to occur before a
crime could be perpetrated, but drug use could happen without crime resulting. For instance,
prior to committing a crime a person would have had to have used drugs; however, just
because a person used drugs does not mean a crime was destined or had to occur.
b) If drug use was a sufficient cause of crime, drug use would more or less guarantee that crime
would occur, but there may also be other reasons why crime occurs. In this case, the use of
drugs would almost guarantee that a crime would then be committed, but it is also possible
that a crime could occur because of necessity, passion, or another reason.
c) If drug use was a necessary and sufficient cause of crime, drug use must be present for
crime to occur and any time there was drug use a crime would result. In this scenario, a crime
would not occur unless the perpetrator used drugs, and anytime a person used drugs they
would in turn commit a crime.
© 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a 1
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
