Making of Modern Britain
1951-1964
Conservatives were elected in the 1951 election under Winston Churchill and the party re-
mained in power until 1964.
Churchill (1951-1955), Eden (1955-1957), Harold Macmillan (1957-1963) and Sir Alec Douglas
(1963-1964).
(POST WAR CONSENSUS) Many of Labour’s policies from 1945-1951 were continued by the
Conservative government. This was known as the post-war consensus or Butskellism after But-
ler and Gaitskill. In theory, it suggested a mixed economy, support for the NHS and welfare
state, full employment and working with trade unions.
In practice fulfillments were met. For housing, Macmillan built 300,000 houses a year by 1953.
For education, the tripartite system set up by the Butler Act 1944 was continued. For social re-
forms, the welfare and NHS continued to be funded, government regulations were created in-
cluding the Clean Air Act 1959 and liberal social reform was also present with the Homicide Act
1957 and the Wolfenden Report 1957.
(REASONS FOR THE CONSERVATIVE FALL FROM POWER) Conservative failures; for exam-
ple, growing economic concerns, rejection of EEC application, Macmillan’s leadership. Conser-
vatives looked out of touch with social change. Scandals such as the Profumo Affair. Labour
unity under Harold Wilson.
(INTERNAL LABOUR DIVISIONS) Clause IV committed the party to public ownership of major
industries which was supported by the left and opposed by the right. Divisions between Bevan
(Left) and Gaitskill (Right). Prescription charge were opposed by the left and favoured by the
right. Nuclear weapon disarmament was supported by the left and opposed by the right.
(ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS) Food rationing ended in 1951, worldwide recovery led to an
increase in global trade. Productivity in Britain went up and full employment was achieved by
1955. Britains industrial productivity increased from 101 in 1952 to 129 in 1959. There was a
danger that increased consumer demand would lead to Britain importing more than it exported
which would lead to a balance of payments deficit and a run on the pound. Also a danger that
the economy would grow faster than it could produce which would lead to inflation. Conserva-
tive governments therefore introduced stop-go economics which would change the economy in
response to lowering and raising interest rates.
Britain however developed a budget deficit of £800 million by 1964, they failed to join the EEC
in 1963 and needed to apply to the IMF for a loan in 1961.
(SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS) Post war boom meant people enjoyed a rise in living standards.
This included higher wages, new consumer goods and housing improvements. The impact of
affluence meant car ownership increased by 25%. The ‘Establishment’ now had a damaged
reputation as a result of Suez Crisis, Profumo Affair and nuclear disarmament. Women returned
to traditional roles and were discouraged from work. Booming economy meant greater immi-
gration, as seen through the symbolic Empire Windrush, which meant greater tension as seen
in the Notting Hill Riots 1958 which led to the Commonwealth Immigrations Act 1962. Youth
culture became more visible through the Teddy Boys (early 50s) and Mods and Rockers (late
50s).
(FOREIGN RELATIONS) By 1951 the world was dominated by the USA and USSR. The influ-
ence of the second World War meant many were keen to close ties. Britain chose not to join the
EEC in 1957 due to the right preferring Commonwealth ties, sustaining the special relationship
and the left believing it was a capitalist club. Britain quickly changed their mind as they set up
EFTA in 1959. This was much less effective than the EEC and so they applied in 1961 which was
rejected in 1963 when Charles De Gaulle (French President) vetoed entry. Key examples of co-
operation between Britain and the US included formation of NATO in 1949, 1950 Korean War
(Britain supplied 90,000 forces) and 1961 Cuban Missile Crisis. Examples of tension included
the US dismissing British involvement in Suez, the Burgees and Maclean spy scandal.
In 1956, Egyptian leader Abdul Nasser announced he would nationalise the Suez Canal which
concerned Britain. PM Eden planned to invade the canal with France and Isreal which occurred
in November 1956. Consequences included both Labour and the US condemning the actions,
, Eden’s resignation, demonstrated weak position and reliance on the US and challenged their
reputation as a force for good.
In 1960, Macmillan made his ‘wind of change’ speech which acknowledged the need for de-
colonisation.
1964-1970
After 13 years of Conservative governments, Labour won the 1964 election. They only had a majority of 4 so Wilson
called another election 2 years later, increasing the majority to 96.
(WILSON’S IDEOLOGY) He positioned both him and the Labour Party as modern and forward thinking. He appealed to
the left as he was originally believed to be left after resigning over prescription charges and he appealed to the right as
he served in Gaitskill’s shadow cabinet.
(INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS) Key elements of the post war consensus were to ensure full employment and working
with trade unions. Wilson made trade unionist Frank Cousins the Minister of Technology. Relations broke down however
by 1966 and Labour became convinced legislation was necessary. Employment Minister Barbara Castle produced a
white paper, In Place of Strife (1969) designed to improve relations; trade unions appalled this change and so the gov-
ernment backed down.
(ECONOMIC POLICIES AND PROBLEMS) Aimed to end the ‘stop-go’ economic policies of the 1950s. Despite growth,
Britain had fallen behind other countries. In 1964 the Labour government inherited a huge deficit in the balance of
trades. This left them with two main policy choices; deflation or devaluation. Wilson believed that, instead, careful eco-
nomic planning would solve this issue. So Wilson set up the DEA in 1964 and the National Board for Prices and Incomes
in 1965. Success was limited however due to trade unions becoming more left wing, DEA abandoned in 1967 and the
leadership of George Brown.
(OTHER DOMESTIC POLICIES) Wilson win the 1964 election promising the party would harness a ‘white heat of tech-
nological change’. He went on to suggest scientific innovation would help overcome Britain’s low productivity. Eco-
nomic issues largely overshadowed these developments.
(LABOUR DIVISIONS) Tension evident between senior ministers. Wilson feared George Brown as Brown had lost a
general election to him. Wilson feared a leadership challenge with Callaghan and also feared Roy Jenkins as he was a
previous supporter of Gaitskill.
(END OF THE POST WAR CONSENSUS) By the end of the 1960s there was doubt on the right and left of the political
spectrum about of the efficiency of the PWC. It had not dealt with economic pressures and poverty/social issues re-
mained.
(BEGINNING OF NORTHERN IRELAND TROUBLES) By the mid 1960s there was growing tension in Northern Ireland
as a secretarian divided existed. Nationalists were supportive of a united Ireland whilst unionists were supportive of the
union between Northern Ireland and Britain. Republicans did not recognise the legitimacy of British institutions while
loyalists were loyal to British institutions. Nationalists/Republicans were mainly Catholic whilst unionists/loyalists were
mainly protestants. As Protestants dominated Northern Ireland, it became evident that discrimination was taking place
towards Catholics in work, housing and by the Royal Ulster Constabulary. In 1968 civil rights marches against discrimi-
nation towards Catholics were attacked. Protestant unionists feared the IRA would start a new campaign of violence
and so the unionist paramilitary organisations were set up. In 1969 the Loyalist Apprentice Boys march was attacked
by nationalists when it passed through a Catholic bogside state. The Battle of Bogside began when the RUC was pre-
vented from entering after two days of rioting. In August 1969 British troops were sent to Northern Ireland by Labour
government to maintain peace.
(THE LOSS OF THE 1970 ELECTION) Conservative Party won the election with a majority of 31. Heath seen as com-
petent and promised to reform industrial relations. He was also unpopular. Wilson was criticised for economic problems
but praised for liberal reform.
(LIBERAL REFORMING LEGISLATION) Roy Jenkins was Home Secretary from 1965-1967. During this period, Labour
posed a great deal of liberal legislation. A series of Private Members’ Bills were put forward; end of capital punishment
in 1969, Divorce Reform Act 1969 allowed ‘no fault’ divorce, Abortion Act 1967 and the Sexual Offences Act 1967 de-
criminalised legislation. Local education authorities also began to establish comprehensive schools as the tripartite sys-
tem was ineffective. By 1970, there was 1145 comprehensive schools.
(FOREIGN AFFAIRS) During the Vietnam war, Britain was not in a position to provide financial support to the US and
so provided moral support. This disappointed the left who wanted Wilson to condemn the war and the USA who wanted
more influential support.
The Labour Party was split over the issue of Europe. Gaitskill and trade unions were against it whilst Jenkins and Brown
were in favour of joining the EEC. Wilson favoured the relationship with America but could also see the benefits of join-
ing the EEC financially. By 1966 Britain submitted an application to join the EEC and by 1967 the application was re-
jected as De Gaulle was unconvinced that Britain would lessen its ties with the US. Reducing Britain’s military involve-
ment in the Commonwealth was crucial for economic growth as spending cuts aimed to bring the defence budget be-
low £2 million by 1970. In 1967 Denis Healey (Minister for Defence) set a timetable to withdraw troops from the middle
East which was accelerated in January 1968 after devaluation crisis. Southern Rhodesia wanted to become indepen-
dent in 1963 which Britain did not want to allow. In 65, PM of Southern Rhodesia Ian Smith issued a unilateral declara-
tion of independence without majority rule; this was declared to be illegal by Wilson who placed economic sanctions on
Rhodesia. In 1968 Wilson met Ian Smith on board HMS Tiger to discuss a negotiation settlement. Despite progress, Ian
1951-1964
Conservatives were elected in the 1951 election under Winston Churchill and the party re-
mained in power until 1964.
Churchill (1951-1955), Eden (1955-1957), Harold Macmillan (1957-1963) and Sir Alec Douglas
(1963-1964).
(POST WAR CONSENSUS) Many of Labour’s policies from 1945-1951 were continued by the
Conservative government. This was known as the post-war consensus or Butskellism after But-
ler and Gaitskill. In theory, it suggested a mixed economy, support for the NHS and welfare
state, full employment and working with trade unions.
In practice fulfillments were met. For housing, Macmillan built 300,000 houses a year by 1953.
For education, the tripartite system set up by the Butler Act 1944 was continued. For social re-
forms, the welfare and NHS continued to be funded, government regulations were created in-
cluding the Clean Air Act 1959 and liberal social reform was also present with the Homicide Act
1957 and the Wolfenden Report 1957.
(REASONS FOR THE CONSERVATIVE FALL FROM POWER) Conservative failures; for exam-
ple, growing economic concerns, rejection of EEC application, Macmillan’s leadership. Conser-
vatives looked out of touch with social change. Scandals such as the Profumo Affair. Labour
unity under Harold Wilson.
(INTERNAL LABOUR DIVISIONS) Clause IV committed the party to public ownership of major
industries which was supported by the left and opposed by the right. Divisions between Bevan
(Left) and Gaitskill (Right). Prescription charge were opposed by the left and favoured by the
right. Nuclear weapon disarmament was supported by the left and opposed by the right.
(ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS) Food rationing ended in 1951, worldwide recovery led to an
increase in global trade. Productivity in Britain went up and full employment was achieved by
1955. Britains industrial productivity increased from 101 in 1952 to 129 in 1959. There was a
danger that increased consumer demand would lead to Britain importing more than it exported
which would lead to a balance of payments deficit and a run on the pound. Also a danger that
the economy would grow faster than it could produce which would lead to inflation. Conserva-
tive governments therefore introduced stop-go economics which would change the economy in
response to lowering and raising interest rates.
Britain however developed a budget deficit of £800 million by 1964, they failed to join the EEC
in 1963 and needed to apply to the IMF for a loan in 1961.
(SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS) Post war boom meant people enjoyed a rise in living standards.
This included higher wages, new consumer goods and housing improvements. The impact of
affluence meant car ownership increased by 25%. The ‘Establishment’ now had a damaged
reputation as a result of Suez Crisis, Profumo Affair and nuclear disarmament. Women returned
to traditional roles and were discouraged from work. Booming economy meant greater immi-
gration, as seen through the symbolic Empire Windrush, which meant greater tension as seen
in the Notting Hill Riots 1958 which led to the Commonwealth Immigrations Act 1962. Youth
culture became more visible through the Teddy Boys (early 50s) and Mods and Rockers (late
50s).
(FOREIGN RELATIONS) By 1951 the world was dominated by the USA and USSR. The influ-
ence of the second World War meant many were keen to close ties. Britain chose not to join the
EEC in 1957 due to the right preferring Commonwealth ties, sustaining the special relationship
and the left believing it was a capitalist club. Britain quickly changed their mind as they set up
EFTA in 1959. This was much less effective than the EEC and so they applied in 1961 which was
rejected in 1963 when Charles De Gaulle (French President) vetoed entry. Key examples of co-
operation between Britain and the US included formation of NATO in 1949, 1950 Korean War
(Britain supplied 90,000 forces) and 1961 Cuban Missile Crisis. Examples of tension included
the US dismissing British involvement in Suez, the Burgees and Maclean spy scandal.
In 1956, Egyptian leader Abdul Nasser announced he would nationalise the Suez Canal which
concerned Britain. PM Eden planned to invade the canal with France and Isreal which occurred
in November 1956. Consequences included both Labour and the US condemning the actions,
, Eden’s resignation, demonstrated weak position and reliance on the US and challenged their
reputation as a force for good.
In 1960, Macmillan made his ‘wind of change’ speech which acknowledged the need for de-
colonisation.
1964-1970
After 13 years of Conservative governments, Labour won the 1964 election. They only had a majority of 4 so Wilson
called another election 2 years later, increasing the majority to 96.
(WILSON’S IDEOLOGY) He positioned both him and the Labour Party as modern and forward thinking. He appealed to
the left as he was originally believed to be left after resigning over prescription charges and he appealed to the right as
he served in Gaitskill’s shadow cabinet.
(INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS) Key elements of the post war consensus were to ensure full employment and working
with trade unions. Wilson made trade unionist Frank Cousins the Minister of Technology. Relations broke down however
by 1966 and Labour became convinced legislation was necessary. Employment Minister Barbara Castle produced a
white paper, In Place of Strife (1969) designed to improve relations; trade unions appalled this change and so the gov-
ernment backed down.
(ECONOMIC POLICIES AND PROBLEMS) Aimed to end the ‘stop-go’ economic policies of the 1950s. Despite growth,
Britain had fallen behind other countries. In 1964 the Labour government inherited a huge deficit in the balance of
trades. This left them with two main policy choices; deflation or devaluation. Wilson believed that, instead, careful eco-
nomic planning would solve this issue. So Wilson set up the DEA in 1964 and the National Board for Prices and Incomes
in 1965. Success was limited however due to trade unions becoming more left wing, DEA abandoned in 1967 and the
leadership of George Brown.
(OTHER DOMESTIC POLICIES) Wilson win the 1964 election promising the party would harness a ‘white heat of tech-
nological change’. He went on to suggest scientific innovation would help overcome Britain’s low productivity. Eco-
nomic issues largely overshadowed these developments.
(LABOUR DIVISIONS) Tension evident between senior ministers. Wilson feared George Brown as Brown had lost a
general election to him. Wilson feared a leadership challenge with Callaghan and also feared Roy Jenkins as he was a
previous supporter of Gaitskill.
(END OF THE POST WAR CONSENSUS) By the end of the 1960s there was doubt on the right and left of the political
spectrum about of the efficiency of the PWC. It had not dealt with economic pressures and poverty/social issues re-
mained.
(BEGINNING OF NORTHERN IRELAND TROUBLES) By the mid 1960s there was growing tension in Northern Ireland
as a secretarian divided existed. Nationalists were supportive of a united Ireland whilst unionists were supportive of the
union between Northern Ireland and Britain. Republicans did not recognise the legitimacy of British institutions while
loyalists were loyal to British institutions. Nationalists/Republicans were mainly Catholic whilst unionists/loyalists were
mainly protestants. As Protestants dominated Northern Ireland, it became evident that discrimination was taking place
towards Catholics in work, housing and by the Royal Ulster Constabulary. In 1968 civil rights marches against discrimi-
nation towards Catholics were attacked. Protestant unionists feared the IRA would start a new campaign of violence
and so the unionist paramilitary organisations were set up. In 1969 the Loyalist Apprentice Boys march was attacked
by nationalists when it passed through a Catholic bogside state. The Battle of Bogside began when the RUC was pre-
vented from entering after two days of rioting. In August 1969 British troops were sent to Northern Ireland by Labour
government to maintain peace.
(THE LOSS OF THE 1970 ELECTION) Conservative Party won the election with a majority of 31. Heath seen as com-
petent and promised to reform industrial relations. He was also unpopular. Wilson was criticised for economic problems
but praised for liberal reform.
(LIBERAL REFORMING LEGISLATION) Roy Jenkins was Home Secretary from 1965-1967. During this period, Labour
posed a great deal of liberal legislation. A series of Private Members’ Bills were put forward; end of capital punishment
in 1969, Divorce Reform Act 1969 allowed ‘no fault’ divorce, Abortion Act 1967 and the Sexual Offences Act 1967 de-
criminalised legislation. Local education authorities also began to establish comprehensive schools as the tripartite sys-
tem was ineffective. By 1970, there was 1145 comprehensive schools.
(FOREIGN AFFAIRS) During the Vietnam war, Britain was not in a position to provide financial support to the US and
so provided moral support. This disappointed the left who wanted Wilson to condemn the war and the USA who wanted
more influential support.
The Labour Party was split over the issue of Europe. Gaitskill and trade unions were against it whilst Jenkins and Brown
were in favour of joining the EEC. Wilson favoured the relationship with America but could also see the benefits of join-
ing the EEC financially. By 1966 Britain submitted an application to join the EEC and by 1967 the application was re-
jected as De Gaulle was unconvinced that Britain would lessen its ties with the US. Reducing Britain’s military involve-
ment in the Commonwealth was crucial for economic growth as spending cuts aimed to bring the defence budget be-
low £2 million by 1970. In 1967 Denis Healey (Minister for Defence) set a timetable to withdraw troops from the middle
East which was accelerated in January 1968 after devaluation crisis. Southern Rhodesia wanted to become indepen-
dent in 1963 which Britain did not want to allow. In 65, PM of Southern Rhodesia Ian Smith issued a unilateral declara-
tion of independence without majority rule; this was declared to be illegal by Wilson who placed economic sanctions on
Rhodesia. In 1968 Wilson met Ian Smith on board HMS Tiger to discuss a negotiation settlement. Despite progress, Ian
