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BSc First Year - Anatomy and Physiology Important Questions
(Based on INC Syllabus)
ANATOMY
LONG ESSAYS (10 MARKS)
Describe the autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the nervous system that
regulates involuntary functions. Examples are the heartbeat, the digestive
functions of the intestines, control of respiration, and secretion by glands.
The organization of the ANS is on the basis of the reflex arc and it has an afferent
limb, efferent limb, and a central integrating system.
Afferent Limb
The afferent limb transmits information from the periphery to the central nervous
system (CNS). The receptors are present in the abdominal and thoracic
viscera. The transmissions from these receptors are conducted along neural
pathways into the spinal cord via the dorsal root ganglion or to the brain stem via
cranial nerves. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors are examples of the afferent
pathway. These are present in the aortic arch and carotid sinus. The sensory
impulses from these receptors are transmitted via glossopharyngeal and vagus
nerves to the brain stem.
Efferent Limb
The efferent limb is made up of preganglionic and post-ganglionic fibres and an
autonomic ganglion. The efferent limb is further subdivided based on its anatomic
and physiological differences into sympathetic and parasympathetic components.
A useful generalization is that the sympathetic system responds for ‘flight-or-
fight’ and prepares the body for such a response by increasing the heart rate,
arterial pressure, blood flow to the skeletal muscles, heart, and brain. The
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parasympathetic system prepares the body for ‘rest and digest’ by depressing the
central venous system and increasing the activity of the abdominal viscera.
Central Integration
Simple reflexes are completed within the organ system involved. More complex
reflexes are regulated by higher autonomic centres present in the CNS, mainly the
hypothalamus and the brain stem.
Structure of the ANS
Preganglionic fibres of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic system are
myelinated, whereas the post-ganglionic fibres are unmyelinated. Both the
divisions of the ANS innervate most of the organs in the body, usually with
opposing effects. The effects may also be parallel as seen in the salivary glands.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Preganglionic fibres originate from cell bodies in the grey matter of the lateral
horn of the spinal cord between the first thoracic segment down to the second or
third lumbar segment (T1 to L2/3). The so-called ‘thoraco-lumbar’ outflow. These
preganglionic fibres synapse with the post-ganglionic neurones in the ganglia of
the sympathetic chain. The ganglia form the sympathetic chain arranged as two
paravertebral chains. The post-ganglionic fibres leave the ganglia and join the
spinal nerves or visceral nerves to innervate the target organs.
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Sympathetic nervous system anatomy at the spinal cord level. 1, Somatic
efferent; 2, somatic afferent; 3–5, sympathetic efferent; 6 and 7, sympathetic
afferent.
The paravertebral sympathetic chain
The paravertebral sympathetic chain is divided into four parts.
i. A cervical part: consists of three ganglia (superior, middle, and inferior) supplying
the head, neck, and thorax. The inferior cervical ganglion fuses with the first
thoracic ganglion to form the stellate ganglion.
ii. A thoracic part: consists of series of ganglia from each thoracic segment. T1–T5
branches supply the aortic, cardiac, and pulmonary plexus.
iii. Lumbar part: situated in front of the lumbar vertebral column as the prevertebral
ganglia. Branches from the lumbar part form the coeliac plexus.
iv. Pelvic part: lies in front of the sacrum and consists of the sacral ganglia
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Parasympathetic nervous system
Preganglionic fibres arise from the CNS from both the cranial (from brain stem)
and sacral nerves called ‘craniosacral’ outflow. Cranial parasympathetic fibres
arise from brainstem motor nuclei of the 3rd, 7th, 9th, and 10th cranial nerves.
Sacral outflow arises from the second, third, and fourth sacral segments of the
spinal cord. Fibres emerge from ventral rami of nerves S2–4 and form the pelvic
splanchnic nerves.
Describe the thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is an endocrine structure, located in the neck. In this article, we
shall look at the anatomical position, vasculature, innervation and any clinical
correlations.
The thyroid gland is located in the anterior neck, spanning between the C% and
T1 vertebrae. It is an endocrine gland, divided into two lobes which are connected
by an isthmus. It is said to have a butterfly shape.
It lies behind the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles, wrapping around the
cricoids cartilage and superior tracheal rings. It is inferior to the thyroid cartilage
of the larynx. The gland is in the visceral compartment of the neck, along with the
trachea, oesophagus and pharynx. The compartment is bound by pretracheal
fascia.
During development, the thyroid gland initially forms in the floor of the primitive
pharynx, near the base of the tongue. It descends down the neck to lie in its adult
anatomical position.
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=info.therithal.brainkart.nursingstudynotes
nurseinfo.in canestar.com
BSc First Year - Anatomy and Physiology Important Questions
(Based on INC Syllabus)
ANATOMY
LONG ESSAYS (10 MARKS)
Describe the autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the nervous system that
regulates involuntary functions. Examples are the heartbeat, the digestive
functions of the intestines, control of respiration, and secretion by glands.
The organization of the ANS is on the basis of the reflex arc and it has an afferent
limb, efferent limb, and a central integrating system.
Afferent Limb
The afferent limb transmits information from the periphery to the central nervous
system (CNS). The receptors are present in the abdominal and thoracic
viscera. The transmissions from these receptors are conducted along neural
pathways into the spinal cord via the dorsal root ganglion or to the brain stem via
cranial nerves. Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors are examples of the afferent
pathway. These are present in the aortic arch and carotid sinus. The sensory
impulses from these receptors are transmitted via glossopharyngeal and vagus
nerves to the brain stem.
Efferent Limb
The efferent limb is made up of preganglionic and post-ganglionic fibres and an
autonomic ganglion. The efferent limb is further subdivided based on its anatomic
and physiological differences into sympathetic and parasympathetic components.
A useful generalization is that the sympathetic system responds for ‘flight-or-
fight’ and prepares the body for such a response by increasing the heart rate,
arterial pressure, blood flow to the skeletal muscles, heart, and brain. The
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parasympathetic system prepares the body for ‘rest and digest’ by depressing the
central venous system and increasing the activity of the abdominal viscera.
Central Integration
Simple reflexes are completed within the organ system involved. More complex
reflexes are regulated by higher autonomic centres present in the CNS, mainly the
hypothalamus and the brain stem.
Structure of the ANS
Preganglionic fibres of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic system are
myelinated, whereas the post-ganglionic fibres are unmyelinated. Both the
divisions of the ANS innervate most of the organs in the body, usually with
opposing effects. The effects may also be parallel as seen in the salivary glands.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Preganglionic fibres originate from cell bodies in the grey matter of the lateral
horn of the spinal cord between the first thoracic segment down to the second or
third lumbar segment (T1 to L2/3). The so-called ‘thoraco-lumbar’ outflow. These
preganglionic fibres synapse with the post-ganglionic neurones in the ganglia of
the sympathetic chain. The ganglia form the sympathetic chain arranged as two
paravertebral chains. The post-ganglionic fibres leave the ganglia and join the
spinal nerves or visceral nerves to innervate the target organs.
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Sympathetic nervous system anatomy at the spinal cord level. 1, Somatic
efferent; 2, somatic afferent; 3–5, sympathetic efferent; 6 and 7, sympathetic
afferent.
The paravertebral sympathetic chain
The paravertebral sympathetic chain is divided into four parts.
i. A cervical part: consists of three ganglia (superior, middle, and inferior) supplying
the head, neck, and thorax. The inferior cervical ganglion fuses with the first
thoracic ganglion to form the stellate ganglion.
ii. A thoracic part: consists of series of ganglia from each thoracic segment. T1–T5
branches supply the aortic, cardiac, and pulmonary plexus.
iii. Lumbar part: situated in front of the lumbar vertebral column as the prevertebral
ganglia. Branches from the lumbar part form the coeliac plexus.
iv. Pelvic part: lies in front of the sacrum and consists of the sacral ganglia
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Parasympathetic nervous system
Preganglionic fibres arise from the CNS from both the cranial (from brain stem)
and sacral nerves called ‘craniosacral’ outflow. Cranial parasympathetic fibres
arise from brainstem motor nuclei of the 3rd, 7th, 9th, and 10th cranial nerves.
Sacral outflow arises from the second, third, and fourth sacral segments of the
spinal cord. Fibres emerge from ventral rami of nerves S2–4 and form the pelvic
splanchnic nerves.
Describe the thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is an endocrine structure, located in the neck. In this article, we
shall look at the anatomical position, vasculature, innervation and any clinical
correlations.
The thyroid gland is located in the anterior neck, spanning between the C% and
T1 vertebrae. It is an endocrine gland, divided into two lobes which are connected
by an isthmus. It is said to have a butterfly shape.
It lies behind the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles, wrapping around the
cricoids cartilage and superior tracheal rings. It is inferior to the thyroid cartilage
of the larynx. The gland is in the visceral compartment of the neck, along with the
trachea, oesophagus and pharynx. The compartment is bound by pretracheal
fascia.
During development, the thyroid gland initially forms in the floor of the primitive
pharynx, near the base of the tongue. It descends down the neck to lie in its adult
anatomical position.
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=info.therithal.brainkart.nursingstudynotes
