Historical Research Letter www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3178 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0964 (Online)
Vol.36, 2016
A Socio-Historical Appraisal of the Implantation of English in
Nigeria
Ayo Osisanwo, Ph.D
Department of English, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
People without the knowledge of their past are bound to repeat their faults. A socio-historical appraisal of the
Nigerian situation discloses that before the incursion of the Europeans, Nigeria was an African country in which
a kaleidoscopic linguistic diversity was existing. The implantation of English in Nigeria dates back to the
nineteenth century. It was not through just a medium, rather through different media. The interest of the current
researcher in this paper is to account for the different media through which English was implanted and the
circumstances that led to each alongside its effect. This is a core aspect of the sociolinguistics of the Nigerian
situation. The concern of sociolinguists is to trace the nature of linguistic variability and language change as they
are affected by social structure. We conclude that the implantation of English in Nigeria was not achieved over a
night; rather, it was achieved through determination, pressure, patience and persistence.
Keywords: Sociolinguistics, implantation, English, History, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
History is to people what memory is to the individual (Fafunwa, 1974:1). People without the knowledge of their
past are bound to repeat their faults (Ogu, 1992:63). A socio-historical appraisal of the Nigerian situation
discloses that before the incursion of the Europeans, Nigeria was an African country in which a kaleidoscopic
linguistic diversity was existing. Nigeria already existed as a multilingual nation, and the coming of the
Europeans added to the linguistic complexity though with a change, that is, in the way it brings a unifying
language. Various agencies have been involved in the unifying role, which sees to the implantation and
development of English in Nigeria. These agencies, among others, include; commerce, religion and education
(Banjo 1996:1-13). The differences in the agencies and period(s) of their arrival are probably responsible for
the variations in the use and formation of the language in the Nigerian situation. Hence Bamgbose (1995:26)
discusses the English Language as that which has been ‘pidginised, nativised, acculturated and twisted to express
unaccustomed concepts and modes of interaction. In line with his idea, Adegbija (2004:21) asserts that
“domestication has given birth to Nigerian English”. However, Osisanwo (2003:v) suggests that “the
domestication of English language in Nigeria still has to be done within the framework of meaningfulness and
international intelligibility”. It is therefore the aim of this paper to appraise socio-historically, the factors that led
to the implantation of the English language in Nigeria.
The implantation of English in Nigeria dates back to the nineteenth century. It was not through just a
medium, rather through different media. The interest of the current researcher in this paper is to trace these
media and the circumstances that led to each alongside its effect. This is a core aspect of the sociolingistics of the
Nigerian situation. The concern of sociolinguists is to trace the nature of linguistic variability and language
change as they are affected by social structure. This branch of linguistics studies the properties of language
which require social and contextual explanation. The implantation of English came through different media
including; the missionary activities, colonial administration, conquest and trade relations.
Before the arrival of the Europeans into the continent of Africa, a linguistic diversity was already in
existence, although many of these languages were historically related and this idea has remained unchanged till
date. Many of the African states were either bilingual or multilingual and Nigeria is an example of this
multilingual setting. The implantation of English in Nigeria added to the multilingual problem of the country. As
earlier mentioned in the course of this paper and in line with Akindele and Adegbite (1999:58) ‘the genesis of the
use of English dates back to the early nineteenth century when freed slaves of Nigerian origin returned to Nigeria
sequel to the abolition of slaves trade’. However, it is worthy of note to remark that, the beginnings of the
English Language in Nigeria are not clear, in that we do not know who the first Nigerian speaker of English was.
It appears however, that the use of the English language in Nigeria must predate both the first, known written use
of the language by Equiano published in 1787 and the use of the language by British missionaries and
administration (see Adetugbo, 1978:63).
According to Ayandele (1966:3);
Records show that except in old Calabar the cultural result of 400 years of European contact (with
Nigeria) was the evolution of the bastardized ‘pidgin’ English which became the language of business. The Efik
of Old Calabar seemed more accommodating to European civilization and, to the superficial observer, a blend of
the European and indigenous was developing. The Efik, it is said, had schools, in the eighteenth century. By the
middle of the nineteenth century, important Efik chiefs had learned to cherish ‘Esquire’ after their anglicized
28
, Historical Research Letter www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3178 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0964 (Online)
Vol.36, 2016
names…
Nevertheless, the language has become the gateway to any highly placed status in the country today.
It is interesting to note that Nigeria’s earliest contact with Europe took place in the 15th century and
precisely in 1472. Places such as Warri, Brass and Calabar were some of the earliest to have contact with the
English and some even before the beginning of trans-Atlantic slave trade. The Portuguese were the first set of
people from Europe to set their foot on the West African coast. History has it that when they arrived, they found
out that they could not communicate with the natives who spoke various languages, being a multilingual setting.
Ogu (1992:65) records that it was not certain whether it was the Portuguese that first learnt the native language
or vice versa, in order to ascertain communication. Indeed, before the British missionaries and the colonial
administrators’ presence in Nigeria (who were partly responsible for the implantation of the English language in
the country) the coastal and the riverine areas of the country had had contacts with Europeans who spoke a
variety of languages which were Portuguese, English and Spanish. Adetugbo (1978:64) asserts that ‘it seems the
Portuguese were the earliest European to have had a foothold in Nigeria.’
A look at the implantation of the Portuguese in Nigeria, which started in Benin could be traced to the
grounds of trade and commerce. The Portuguese had established a strong trading post in Benin and Sao Tome in
the late 15th century and are reported to have had an embassy in, and exchanged ambassadors with the court of
the Oba of Benin. During this era, the Portuguese monopolized the pepper trade with Benin even by sending
missionaries and trading agents to Benin. Hence, having first established mission schools in the palace of the
Oba of Benin for his sons and members of the council, they later established others locally. In addition to this
particular activity of the Portuguese in implanting the language, they sent Binis to Portugal to learn the language
and on their return, to act as interpreters between Portuguese merchants and their local agents. However, the
Portuguese influence in Benin was short-lived linguistically. The Portuguese merchants as recorded by Ogu
(1992:66), did not speak much of the English language, rather they were interested in commerce. Their attempt
to communicate by all means gave rise to what is today regarded as the Pidgin English. It was culminated by the
mixture of the indigenous languages and the Portuguese dialect of English. There was a tremendous growth in
the Pidgin English, until the English displaced the Portuguese in the pepper trade. English therefore became the
chief coastal trade language. England was one of the early countries to challenge the Portuguese monopoly of the
pepper trade probably due to an earlier espionage by a crew led by Thomas Windham to Benin in 1553. However,
a question that still bothers scholars is that which was asked in Adetugbo (1978:65) thus;
If the Portuguese language gave a base to the pidginised language known as Negro-Portuguese used in
the coastal trading posts, then it is pertinent to ask why Portuguese could have been so easily replaced by English
even before British colonial presence in Nigeria.
Probably, a short while after the implantation of Portuguesse in the Benin court, it became just one of
the European languages used. Adetugbo (ibid) asserts that even at this time when Portuguese pepper trade
monopoly was being broken by the English, Portuguese as a language had not actually established itself to
withstand the challenge from English.
The linguistic effects we have from the earlier Portuguese contact are in line with the introduction of
words such as; palaver, wrapper, Lagos (which was from the Portuguese word Lago that is, Lagoon). The
essence of the variety of English spoken in the coastal region for coastal trade, that is, pidgin English was to
facilitate trade contact with the different tribes with their multiplicity of languages and dialects. Some linguists
have termed pidgin English as the bastardized version of English, that is it is an independent language which
share boundary with other languages such as English Portuguese, French, Yoruba and Igbo. Ogu (1992:66)
refers to pidgin English as “ a farrago of bad words and broken phrases with great peculiarities in its verb
forms… employs no gender.” The role played in the implantation of English during the period of the trans
Atlantic slave trade is also very significant to this study. It changed the status which English ever had in the
earlier periods. During this era, England became a major exporter of slaves from the parts of Benin, Lagos,
Bonny, Calabar, and Warri. The British and French came to be in possession of the slave trade in West Africa
after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The British were however almost dominating exclusively the trade in the
ports around the Niger Delta. The Nigerian coastal middle-men were the main means through which slaves were
supplied to the British. This probably led to the emergence of another variety of the English language, called the
corrupt form, with which the middlemen and the British communicated. Ogu (1992:97) and Adetugbo (1978:66)
confirm that the practice of training interpreters abroad was reported by William Towerson, an English man, as
early as 1598, of a young Portuguese speaking African who had escaped from a castle near Elmina:
This fellow came aboard our ship without fear, and as soon as he came, he demanded why we had not
brought again their men, which the last year we took away, and could tell us that there were five taken away by
English men: we made him answer that they were in England well used and were kept till when they could speak
the language…
Hence, the coming of professional interpreters also had a great influence in the implantation of English
language in Nigeria. Men and women who offered their services to ship captains along the west coast of Africa
29
ISSN 2224-3178 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0964 (Online)
Vol.36, 2016
A Socio-Historical Appraisal of the Implantation of English in
Nigeria
Ayo Osisanwo, Ph.D
Department of English, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
People without the knowledge of their past are bound to repeat their faults. A socio-historical appraisal of the
Nigerian situation discloses that before the incursion of the Europeans, Nigeria was an African country in which
a kaleidoscopic linguistic diversity was existing. The implantation of English in Nigeria dates back to the
nineteenth century. It was not through just a medium, rather through different media. The interest of the current
researcher in this paper is to account for the different media through which English was implanted and the
circumstances that led to each alongside its effect. This is a core aspect of the sociolinguistics of the Nigerian
situation. The concern of sociolinguists is to trace the nature of linguistic variability and language change as they
are affected by social structure. We conclude that the implantation of English in Nigeria was not achieved over a
night; rather, it was achieved through determination, pressure, patience and persistence.
Keywords: Sociolinguistics, implantation, English, History, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
History is to people what memory is to the individual (Fafunwa, 1974:1). People without the knowledge of their
past are bound to repeat their faults (Ogu, 1992:63). A socio-historical appraisal of the Nigerian situation
discloses that before the incursion of the Europeans, Nigeria was an African country in which a kaleidoscopic
linguistic diversity was existing. Nigeria already existed as a multilingual nation, and the coming of the
Europeans added to the linguistic complexity though with a change, that is, in the way it brings a unifying
language. Various agencies have been involved in the unifying role, which sees to the implantation and
development of English in Nigeria. These agencies, among others, include; commerce, religion and education
(Banjo 1996:1-13). The differences in the agencies and period(s) of their arrival are probably responsible for
the variations in the use and formation of the language in the Nigerian situation. Hence Bamgbose (1995:26)
discusses the English Language as that which has been ‘pidginised, nativised, acculturated and twisted to express
unaccustomed concepts and modes of interaction. In line with his idea, Adegbija (2004:21) asserts that
“domestication has given birth to Nigerian English”. However, Osisanwo (2003:v) suggests that “the
domestication of English language in Nigeria still has to be done within the framework of meaningfulness and
international intelligibility”. It is therefore the aim of this paper to appraise socio-historically, the factors that led
to the implantation of the English language in Nigeria.
The implantation of English in Nigeria dates back to the nineteenth century. It was not through just a
medium, rather through different media. The interest of the current researcher in this paper is to trace these
media and the circumstances that led to each alongside its effect. This is a core aspect of the sociolingistics of the
Nigerian situation. The concern of sociolinguists is to trace the nature of linguistic variability and language
change as they are affected by social structure. This branch of linguistics studies the properties of language
which require social and contextual explanation. The implantation of English came through different media
including; the missionary activities, colonial administration, conquest and trade relations.
Before the arrival of the Europeans into the continent of Africa, a linguistic diversity was already in
existence, although many of these languages were historically related and this idea has remained unchanged till
date. Many of the African states were either bilingual or multilingual and Nigeria is an example of this
multilingual setting. The implantation of English in Nigeria added to the multilingual problem of the country. As
earlier mentioned in the course of this paper and in line with Akindele and Adegbite (1999:58) ‘the genesis of the
use of English dates back to the early nineteenth century when freed slaves of Nigerian origin returned to Nigeria
sequel to the abolition of slaves trade’. However, it is worthy of note to remark that, the beginnings of the
English Language in Nigeria are not clear, in that we do not know who the first Nigerian speaker of English was.
It appears however, that the use of the English language in Nigeria must predate both the first, known written use
of the language by Equiano published in 1787 and the use of the language by British missionaries and
administration (see Adetugbo, 1978:63).
According to Ayandele (1966:3);
Records show that except in old Calabar the cultural result of 400 years of European contact (with
Nigeria) was the evolution of the bastardized ‘pidgin’ English which became the language of business. The Efik
of Old Calabar seemed more accommodating to European civilization and, to the superficial observer, a blend of
the European and indigenous was developing. The Efik, it is said, had schools, in the eighteenth century. By the
middle of the nineteenth century, important Efik chiefs had learned to cherish ‘Esquire’ after their anglicized
28
, Historical Research Letter www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3178 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0964 (Online)
Vol.36, 2016
names…
Nevertheless, the language has become the gateway to any highly placed status in the country today.
It is interesting to note that Nigeria’s earliest contact with Europe took place in the 15th century and
precisely in 1472. Places such as Warri, Brass and Calabar were some of the earliest to have contact with the
English and some even before the beginning of trans-Atlantic slave trade. The Portuguese were the first set of
people from Europe to set their foot on the West African coast. History has it that when they arrived, they found
out that they could not communicate with the natives who spoke various languages, being a multilingual setting.
Ogu (1992:65) records that it was not certain whether it was the Portuguese that first learnt the native language
or vice versa, in order to ascertain communication. Indeed, before the British missionaries and the colonial
administrators’ presence in Nigeria (who were partly responsible for the implantation of the English language in
the country) the coastal and the riverine areas of the country had had contacts with Europeans who spoke a
variety of languages which were Portuguese, English and Spanish. Adetugbo (1978:64) asserts that ‘it seems the
Portuguese were the earliest European to have had a foothold in Nigeria.’
A look at the implantation of the Portuguese in Nigeria, which started in Benin could be traced to the
grounds of trade and commerce. The Portuguese had established a strong trading post in Benin and Sao Tome in
the late 15th century and are reported to have had an embassy in, and exchanged ambassadors with the court of
the Oba of Benin. During this era, the Portuguese monopolized the pepper trade with Benin even by sending
missionaries and trading agents to Benin. Hence, having first established mission schools in the palace of the
Oba of Benin for his sons and members of the council, they later established others locally. In addition to this
particular activity of the Portuguese in implanting the language, they sent Binis to Portugal to learn the language
and on their return, to act as interpreters between Portuguese merchants and their local agents. However, the
Portuguese influence in Benin was short-lived linguistically. The Portuguese merchants as recorded by Ogu
(1992:66), did not speak much of the English language, rather they were interested in commerce. Their attempt
to communicate by all means gave rise to what is today regarded as the Pidgin English. It was culminated by the
mixture of the indigenous languages and the Portuguese dialect of English. There was a tremendous growth in
the Pidgin English, until the English displaced the Portuguese in the pepper trade. English therefore became the
chief coastal trade language. England was one of the early countries to challenge the Portuguese monopoly of the
pepper trade probably due to an earlier espionage by a crew led by Thomas Windham to Benin in 1553. However,
a question that still bothers scholars is that which was asked in Adetugbo (1978:65) thus;
If the Portuguese language gave a base to the pidginised language known as Negro-Portuguese used in
the coastal trading posts, then it is pertinent to ask why Portuguese could have been so easily replaced by English
even before British colonial presence in Nigeria.
Probably, a short while after the implantation of Portuguesse in the Benin court, it became just one of
the European languages used. Adetugbo (ibid) asserts that even at this time when Portuguese pepper trade
monopoly was being broken by the English, Portuguese as a language had not actually established itself to
withstand the challenge from English.
The linguistic effects we have from the earlier Portuguese contact are in line with the introduction of
words such as; palaver, wrapper, Lagos (which was from the Portuguese word Lago that is, Lagoon). The
essence of the variety of English spoken in the coastal region for coastal trade, that is, pidgin English was to
facilitate trade contact with the different tribes with their multiplicity of languages and dialects. Some linguists
have termed pidgin English as the bastardized version of English, that is it is an independent language which
share boundary with other languages such as English Portuguese, French, Yoruba and Igbo. Ogu (1992:66)
refers to pidgin English as “ a farrago of bad words and broken phrases with great peculiarities in its verb
forms… employs no gender.” The role played in the implantation of English during the period of the trans
Atlantic slave trade is also very significant to this study. It changed the status which English ever had in the
earlier periods. During this era, England became a major exporter of slaves from the parts of Benin, Lagos,
Bonny, Calabar, and Warri. The British and French came to be in possession of the slave trade in West Africa
after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The British were however almost dominating exclusively the trade in the
ports around the Niger Delta. The Nigerian coastal middle-men were the main means through which slaves were
supplied to the British. This probably led to the emergence of another variety of the English language, called the
corrupt form, with which the middlemen and the British communicated. Ogu (1992:97) and Adetugbo (1978:66)
confirm that the practice of training interpreters abroad was reported by William Towerson, an English man, as
early as 1598, of a young Portuguese speaking African who had escaped from a castle near Elmina:
This fellow came aboard our ship without fear, and as soon as he came, he demanded why we had not
brought again their men, which the last year we took away, and could tell us that there were five taken away by
English men: we made him answer that they were in England well used and were kept till when they could speak
the language…
Hence, the coming of professional interpreters also had a great influence in the implantation of English
language in Nigeria. Men and women who offered their services to ship captains along the west coast of Africa
29
