🧠 Unit 0 – Part 2: Research Methods &
Statistics
Key Terms / Questions Notes / Definitions
Scientific Attitude Involves curiosity, skepticism, and humility — helps us think
critically about behavior and avoid bias.
Why do we need Common sense and intuition can be misleading; we need
research? systematic research for accurate results.
Psychomythology Common false beliefs about psychology; critical thinking helps
us refute them.
Hindsight Bias “I knew it all along” effect — believing we could have predicted
an event after it happens.
Overconfidence Thinking we know more than we actually do.
Perceiving Order in We tend to see patterns even when none exist.
Random Events
Confirmation Bias Seeking info that supports our beliefs while ignoring evidence
that contradicts them.
Scientific Method Steps 1. Question 2. Hypothesis 3. Test 4. Analyze 5. Conclusion 6.
Replicate
Hypothesis A testable prediction based on a theory.
Replication Repeating a study to confirm results; increases reliability.
Non-Experimental Observe behavior without manipulating variables. Includes
Methods naturalistic observation, case studies, and meta-analysis.
Naturalistic Observation Watching behavior in natural settings; realistic but lacks control.
Case Study Deep study of one subject; gives detail but not generalizable.
Meta-Analysis Combines results from multiple studies to form one conclusion.
, Survey Collects self-reported info using questions/interviews. Can be
biased if sample isn’t random.
Random Sampling Each person has equal chance of being chosen; gives fair results.
Convenience Sampling Choosing easy-to-reach people; may not represent population.
Correlation Shows how two variables relate, but NOT cause and effect.
Positive Correlation Variables move in the same direction (↑X → ↑Y).
Negative Correlation Variables move in opposite directions (↑X → ↓Y).
Correlation Coefficient Number from -1 to +1 showing strength/direction of
(r) relationship.
Illusory Correlation Believing a relationship exists when it doesn’t.
Regression Toward the Extreme results tend to return to average over time.
Mean
Experimental Research Manipulates one variable (IV) to observe effect on another
(DV).
Independent Variable What’s being changed.
(IV)
Dependent Variable What’s being measured.
(DV)
Confounding Variable Outside factor that may affect results.
Operational Definition How variables are measured — allows replication.
Experimental Group Gets the treatment.
Control Group Doesn’t get treatment; used for comparison.
Random Assignment Randomly places participants in groups to reduce bias.
Hawthorne Effect People change behavior because they know they’re being
studied.
Statistics
Key Terms / Questions Notes / Definitions
Scientific Attitude Involves curiosity, skepticism, and humility — helps us think
critically about behavior and avoid bias.
Why do we need Common sense and intuition can be misleading; we need
research? systematic research for accurate results.
Psychomythology Common false beliefs about psychology; critical thinking helps
us refute them.
Hindsight Bias “I knew it all along” effect — believing we could have predicted
an event after it happens.
Overconfidence Thinking we know more than we actually do.
Perceiving Order in We tend to see patterns even when none exist.
Random Events
Confirmation Bias Seeking info that supports our beliefs while ignoring evidence
that contradicts them.
Scientific Method Steps 1. Question 2. Hypothesis 3. Test 4. Analyze 5. Conclusion 6.
Replicate
Hypothesis A testable prediction based on a theory.
Replication Repeating a study to confirm results; increases reliability.
Non-Experimental Observe behavior without manipulating variables. Includes
Methods naturalistic observation, case studies, and meta-analysis.
Naturalistic Observation Watching behavior in natural settings; realistic but lacks control.
Case Study Deep study of one subject; gives detail but not generalizable.
Meta-Analysis Combines results from multiple studies to form one conclusion.
, Survey Collects self-reported info using questions/interviews. Can be
biased if sample isn’t random.
Random Sampling Each person has equal chance of being chosen; gives fair results.
Convenience Sampling Choosing easy-to-reach people; may not represent population.
Correlation Shows how two variables relate, but NOT cause and effect.
Positive Correlation Variables move in the same direction (↑X → ↑Y).
Negative Correlation Variables move in opposite directions (↑X → ↓Y).
Correlation Coefficient Number from -1 to +1 showing strength/direction of
(r) relationship.
Illusory Correlation Believing a relationship exists when it doesn’t.
Regression Toward the Extreme results tend to return to average over time.
Mean
Experimental Research Manipulates one variable (IV) to observe effect on another
(DV).
Independent Variable What’s being changed.
(IV)
Dependent Variable What’s being measured.
(DV)
Confounding Variable Outside factor that may affect results.
Operational Definition How variables are measured — allows replication.
Experimental Group Gets the treatment.
Control Group Doesn’t get treatment; used for comparison.
Random Assignment Randomly places participants in groups to reduce bias.
Hawthorne Effect People change behavior because they know they’re being
studied.
