Reformulations of the Ontological Argument
Knowledge and Understanding Critical Evaluation
Norman Malcolm – Concludes that Proslogion 3 is more accurate than David Hume – Not possible to take an idea in one’s mind, apply pure
Proslogion 2. logic to that idea and reach a conclusion that is based
- Some versions of the ontological argument are entirely in the external observable universe.
subject to specific criticism; existence is treated as - Existence can’t be treated as a predicate that
a predicate that things have or lack. Malcolm something can ‘have’ or ‘not have’, or which can be
believes P2 is subject to this criticism. added or subtracted from something.
- Malcolm believes P3 doesn't treat existence as a - To think of God as ‘in the mind’ and then to think of
predicate; Anselm is saying that God must exist God as ‘in reality’ is the same thing.
because the concept of God is the concept of a
being whose existence is necessary. Gottlob Frege – Distinguishes between ‘first-order’ and ‘second-order’
- Uses the example of prime numbers in the parable predicates.
‘The Professor and the Fool’ to illustrate that just - ‘First-order’ predicates – Tells one something about
as you know prime numbers exist after they have the nature of something, e.g. ‘the horses are brown.’
been explained to you and you understand this - ‘Second-order’ predicates – Tells one about concepts,
idea, that God must exist when He is explained. e.g. ‘the horses are numerous.’
- This also applies to the equator and love. - Claims Anslem and Descartes mistake existence for a
‘first-order’ predicate when in actual fact it is a
‘second-order’ predicate.
Alvin Plantinga – "Possible worlds" with "infinite possibilities"
- There is a possible world "W" in which there exists Bertrand Russell – Claims Anselm uses the word ‘exist’ incorrectly
a being with 'maximal greatness' because existence can’t be a predicate.
- A being has maximal greatness only if it exists in - Existence is not a property of things but of the
every possible world. ideas of those things.
- Introduces idea of 'maximal excellence' - Put Anselm’s argument into different terms- states
- States that 'maximal greatness' entails 'maximal that labelling and defining something is to provide
excellence' which entails omnipotence, an intention concerning the object under
omniscience and moral perfection. discussion.
- Therefore there is a possible world in which there - Existence is an extension of an intention.
Knowledge and Understanding Critical Evaluation
Norman Malcolm – Concludes that Proslogion 3 is more accurate than David Hume – Not possible to take an idea in one’s mind, apply pure
Proslogion 2. logic to that idea and reach a conclusion that is based
- Some versions of the ontological argument are entirely in the external observable universe.
subject to specific criticism; existence is treated as - Existence can’t be treated as a predicate that
a predicate that things have or lack. Malcolm something can ‘have’ or ‘not have’, or which can be
believes P2 is subject to this criticism. added or subtracted from something.
- Malcolm believes P3 doesn't treat existence as a - To think of God as ‘in the mind’ and then to think of
predicate; Anselm is saying that God must exist God as ‘in reality’ is the same thing.
because the concept of God is the concept of a
being whose existence is necessary. Gottlob Frege – Distinguishes between ‘first-order’ and ‘second-order’
- Uses the example of prime numbers in the parable predicates.
‘The Professor and the Fool’ to illustrate that just - ‘First-order’ predicates – Tells one something about
as you know prime numbers exist after they have the nature of something, e.g. ‘the horses are brown.’
been explained to you and you understand this - ‘Second-order’ predicates – Tells one about concepts,
idea, that God must exist when He is explained. e.g. ‘the horses are numerous.’
- This also applies to the equator and love. - Claims Anslem and Descartes mistake existence for a
‘first-order’ predicate when in actual fact it is a
‘second-order’ predicate.
Alvin Plantinga – "Possible worlds" with "infinite possibilities"
- There is a possible world "W" in which there exists Bertrand Russell – Claims Anselm uses the word ‘exist’ incorrectly
a being with 'maximal greatness' because existence can’t be a predicate.
- A being has maximal greatness only if it exists in - Existence is not a property of things but of the
every possible world. ideas of those things.
- Introduces idea of 'maximal excellence' - Put Anselm’s argument into different terms- states
- States that 'maximal greatness' entails 'maximal that labelling and defining something is to provide
excellence' which entails omnipotence, an intention concerning the object under
omniscience and moral perfection. discussion.
- Therefore there is a possible world in which there - Existence is an extension of an intention.
