Portage Learning NURS 231: Patho Final Objectives and Study Guide B.Nguyen|Patho Spring 2023 Objectives for the Comprehensive Content on Exam 4 (Updated 2025) with Complete A+ Rated solutions

Patho Spring 2023 Objectives for the Comprehensive Content on Exam 4

Content & Related Objectives # of Questions

Cellular Adaptation, Injury, Death 2
1. Describe the pathophysiology/etiology and provide examples of atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia,
metaplasia, and dysplasia.

Genetic and Congenital Disorders 1
2. Describe inheritance patterns of autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive disorders by using
Punnett squares.

Neoplasia 1
2. Differentiate between benign and malignant tumors.

Disorders of Fluid, Electrolyte, Acid-Base Balance 3
1. Describe the physiologic mechanisms/related causes associated with edema.
3. Compare the etiology and manifestations of isotonic fluid volume deficit and fluid volume excess.
8. Compare the ABG alterations and compensatory mechanisms of the 4 acid-base imbalances.

Disorders of Hematopoietic System 3
2. Describe the etiology/pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of platelet disorders and inherited
coagulation disorders.
3. Describe the etiology/pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of sickle cell, iron-deficiency, and
vitamin B12-deficiency anemias.
4. Describe the manifestations of neutropenia.

Inflammation, Tissue Repair, Wound Healing 4
2. Compare the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of the vascular and cellular stages of
acute inflammation;
4. Compare the manifestations of acute and chronic inflammation.
9. Recognize examples of wound healing by primary verses secondary intention.
11. Describe risks for dysfunctional wound healing (i.e., infections, diabetes mellitus)

Disorders of Immune Function 4
2. Differentiate between the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of Type I, II, III, and IV
hypersensitivities.
5. Describe the pathophysiology of HIV.
8/9. Define and recognize examples of opportunistic infections.

Disorders of Blood Flow and Blood Pressure 4
1. Describe the risk factors involved in the development of atherosclerosis.
2. Compare the etiology/pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of acute arterial obstruction and
atherosclerotic occlusive disease.
4. Describe the etiology/pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of chronic venous insufficiency and
venous thrombosis.

Disorders of Cardiac Function, Heart Failure, Shock 6
3. Distinguish among UA, NSTEMI, and STEMI in terms of pathophysiology and clinical manifestations.
4. Describe the pathophysiology, precipitating factors, and clinical manifestations of chronic stable
angina.
8. Differentiate between left ventricular and right ventricular heart failure as to clinical manifestations.

,Content & Related Objectives # of Questions

13. Contrast the etiology and pathophysiology of the cardiogenic, hypovolemic, distributive
(neurogenic, anaphylactic, and septic) and obstructive shock.

Disorders of Musculoskeletal Function: Trauma, Infections, Neoplasm 2
4. Differentiate between a stress and pathological fracture.
9. Describe the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of fat embolism, osteomyelitis, and
compartment syndrome.

Disorders of Musculoskeletal Function: Developmental, Metabolic Disorders and Rheumatic Disorders 3
1. Discuss the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of osteoporosis.
2. Describe the etiology, pathophysiology, and clinical manifestations of osteoarthritis.
2. Describe the hallmark manifestation unique to rheumatoid arthritis.

Respiratory Tract Infections, Neoplasms 2
1. Describe the etiology, pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of influenza.
2. Describe the etiology/pathogenesis, and clinical manifestations of community- and hospital-
acquired pneumonia.

Disorders of Ventilation and Gas Exchange 6
2. Contrast the etiology/pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of pleural effusion, pneumothorax,
and atelectasis.
3. Describe the etiology/pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary diseases (emphysema, chronic bronchitis).
4. Describe the etiology/pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of pulmonary embolism.

Disorders of Renal Function 3
1. Describe the etiology and clinical manifestations of renal calculi.
3. Compare the etiology/pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of acute nephritic syndrome and
nephrotic syndrome.

Acute Kidney Injury and Chronic Kidney Disease 3
1. Contrast the causes of prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal acute kidney injury.
4. Correlate the clinical manifestations of chronic kidney disease with the pathophysiological
mechanisms.

Disorders of Motor Function 3
1. Describe the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of Parkinson’s disease.
2. Describe the pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis.
6. Discuss the functional capabilities of a client who has a SCI at C2. T8, and S1.

Disorders of Brain Function 5
1. Describe clinical manifestations of deteriorating increased intracranial pressure.
4. Compare the pathophysiology, and clinical manifestations of an epidural and subdural hematoma.
5. Compare the etiology, pathophysiology, and clinical manifestations of hemorrhagic and ischemic
strokes (embolic and thrombotic).
6. Compare post-stroke deficits of hemineglect, dysarthria, aphasia, and agnosia.
12. Define status epilepticus.

New Gastrointestinal and Hepatobiliary content 10

New Endocrine content 10

, Content & Related Objectives # of Questions

Total Exam Questions 75




CELLUAR ADAPTATION, INJURY, DEATH - 2 Questions
1. Describe the pathophysiology/etiology and provide examples of atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and
dysplasia.

Cellular Description/Etiology Pathophysiology/Examples
Adaptation
Decrease in work demands or adverse Oxygen consumption = REDUCED
environmental conditions. Cellular function = REDUCED

Atrophy 5 general causes of atrophy: Examples:
Smaller Size ➢ Disuse due to plaster casts
1. Disuse ➢ Malnutrition
2. Denervation ➢ Paralyzed Limbs
3. Loss of endocrine stimulation ➢ Loss of estrogen stimulation during menopause
4. Inadequate nutrition
5. Ischemia or decreased blood flow
Increase in cell size and often tissue Additional actin and myosin filaments, cell enzymes, and
mass. ATP are synthesized.
Results from increased workload
Commonly seen in Cardiac and skeletal Can become pathologic:
Hypertrophy muscle tissue IF IT CONTINUES TO INCREASE IN SIZE, IT MAY NOT BE ABLE
Larger Size TO COMPENSATE FOR THE INCREASED WORKLOAD.
Hypertrophy may occur as a result of normal
physiologic or abnormal pathological Examples:
conditions. ➢ One kidney removed; remaining kidney enlarged to
compensate for the loss.
➢ In hypertension, increased workload in left ventricular
muscle mass to pump blood needed for coronary blood flow.

Hyperplasia Increase in # of cells in an organ or tissue Activation of genes that control cell proliferation, controlled

, Cellular Description/Etiology Pathophysiology/Examples
Adaptation
process that ends when stimulus ends
Occurs in tissues capable of mitotic
division: Examples of physiologic hyperplasia:
Larger Number ➢ Epidermis ➢ Hormonal and compensatory: Breast and uterine enlarged
➢ Intestinal epithelium during pregnancy, result from estrogen stimulation.
➢ Glandular tissue
Examples of non-physiologic hyperplasia:
➢ Excessive estrogen production can cause endometrial
hyperplasia and abnormal menstrual bleeding, increasing
risk of developing endometrial cancer.
Metaplasia Cell type is replaced with another, but Reprogramming of undifferentiated stem cells that are
Replacement the change is reversible. present in the tissue
Change in form Examples:
Usually in response to chronic irritation ➢ Epithelial cells in trachea of a smoker
and inflammation. ➢ Cervix from hormonal changes (puberty/irritation)
Deranged cell growth that results in varying Examples:
Dysplasia size, shape, and organization ➢ Cancer in respiratory tract and cervix
Deranged
Change in form Strongly implicated as a precursor of cancer

Associated with chronic irritation and
inflammation.

GENETIC AND CONGENITAL DISORDERS - 1 Question

2. Describe inheritance patterns of autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive disorders by using Punnett squares.


Autosomal Recessive (practice)
Father and mother are both heterozygous for an autosomal recessive disorder
=25% healthy, 25% disorder, 50% carrier

Example: Cystic Fibrosis and Sickle Cell Disease

➢ 2 DISEASE ALLELES have to be inherited to have the disorder
➢ Healthy = dominant; disorder = recessive


Autosomal Dominant (practice)
Father is heterozygous for Huntington’s disease; mom is homozygous for
Huntington’s disease. Both have moderate disease.
=50% disorder, 50% healthy

Example: Marfan’s syndrome

➢ ONLY 1 DISEASED ALLELE has to be inherited to have the disorder
➢ Disorder = dominate; healthy = recessive


★ Homozygous – Having two identical alleles = aa or AA
★ Heterozygous – Having two different alleles = Aa