10/15/25, 8:29
AM
COGSCI180 FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
VERIFIED UPDATE 2025/2026
Epistemology: theory of knowledge, esp
w/regard to its methods, validity, scope,
and distinction between justified
belief & opinion.
Epistemology: How Do
We Know What Is Approach used to discover truth w/regard
True? to questions concerning nature of self -
very different in Eastern
contemplative traditions & Western
science
- Science uses sensory perception/logical
reasoning - scientific method
- Contemplation uses techniques to
cultivate clear/stable mind so one can
directly perceive the truth
Similarities:
- Both empirically-based, not on blind adherence
to belief/what authorities say
- Conclusions verified through consensual
Scientific versus agreement of highly trained investigators
1/97
,10/15/25, 8:29
AM
contemplative to be considered valid
approaches
Differences:
- Science: 3rd person perspective
- Contemplation: 1st person perspective
Common Criticism of Introspection objection: sounds like introspection
Contemplative - highly subjective/unreliable −
Approach by introspection: observing/reporting
Science mental/emotional processes objectively
Sounds like introspection - highly
subjective/unreliable
Introspection - Introspection: observing/reporting
objection: criticism mental/emotional processes objectively
of the
contemplative
Introspection used in early psychological
approach
experiments in 19th century but
discredited, not considered valid for
investigation now
2/97
,10/15/25, 8:29
AM
Important distinction between
contemplation/introspection:
contemplation requires extensive
training of mind to become
stable/clear using specific techniques
Ricard: introspection discredited because
Contemplative answer participants usually had distracted minds
to introspection - "Distraction creates unsteady mind + an
objection untrained mind lacks clarity that allows
one to see what is happening within
oneself."
It "feels" different when mind is agitated,
distracted, murky vs. when it is stable/clear
☞ Clear/stable mind associated w/inner
peace & brings deeper insights into
nature of reality + mind itself
These various mental states/associated
effects delineated precisely within
contemplative traditions
Reproducibility = criterion in
contemplative approach, just as in
scientific approach. There is consensus
3/97
, 10/15/25, 8:29
AM
among trained contemplatives for
conclusions arrived at, not the case for
untrained subjects
- Can be compared to process followed by
mathematicians who, having undergone
common training, can understand each
Reproducibility, other as they discuss subject, using same
Consensus, and language, and reach similar insights
Reliability - Unless you are trained in mathematics,
would be hard to grasp concepts/follow
discussions
In addition, results can be reproduced by
a particular investigator @ different
points in time, as well as by other
investigators
- That is, insights into nature of
reality/mind that are directly perceived
when one stabilizes/clarifies mind
can be experienced in meditation
Training involves applying specific techniques to
stabilize/clarify mind + progress
indicated by extent to which you can
apply instructions. Also during training,
there are structured dialogues between
student & expert (teacher) to monitor
4/97
AM
COGSCI180 FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS WITH COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
VERIFIED UPDATE 2025/2026
Epistemology: theory of knowledge, esp
w/regard to its methods, validity, scope,
and distinction between justified
belief & opinion.
Epistemology: How Do
We Know What Is Approach used to discover truth w/regard
True? to questions concerning nature of self -
very different in Eastern
contemplative traditions & Western
science
- Science uses sensory perception/logical
reasoning - scientific method
- Contemplation uses techniques to
cultivate clear/stable mind so one can
directly perceive the truth
Similarities:
- Both empirically-based, not on blind adherence
to belief/what authorities say
- Conclusions verified through consensual
Scientific versus agreement of highly trained investigators
1/97
,10/15/25, 8:29
AM
contemplative to be considered valid
approaches
Differences:
- Science: 3rd person perspective
- Contemplation: 1st person perspective
Common Criticism of Introspection objection: sounds like introspection
Contemplative - highly subjective/unreliable −
Approach by introspection: observing/reporting
Science mental/emotional processes objectively
Sounds like introspection - highly
subjective/unreliable
Introspection - Introspection: observing/reporting
objection: criticism mental/emotional processes objectively
of the
contemplative
Introspection used in early psychological
approach
experiments in 19th century but
discredited, not considered valid for
investigation now
2/97
,10/15/25, 8:29
AM
Important distinction between
contemplation/introspection:
contemplation requires extensive
training of mind to become
stable/clear using specific techniques
Ricard: introspection discredited because
Contemplative answer participants usually had distracted minds
to introspection - "Distraction creates unsteady mind + an
objection untrained mind lacks clarity that allows
one to see what is happening within
oneself."
It "feels" different when mind is agitated,
distracted, murky vs. when it is stable/clear
☞ Clear/stable mind associated w/inner
peace & brings deeper insights into
nature of reality + mind itself
These various mental states/associated
effects delineated precisely within
contemplative traditions
Reproducibility = criterion in
contemplative approach, just as in
scientific approach. There is consensus
3/97
, 10/15/25, 8:29
AM
among trained contemplatives for
conclusions arrived at, not the case for
untrained subjects
- Can be compared to process followed by
mathematicians who, having undergone
common training, can understand each
Reproducibility, other as they discuss subject, using same
Consensus, and language, and reach similar insights
Reliability - Unless you are trained in mathematics,
would be hard to grasp concepts/follow
discussions
In addition, results can be reproduced by
a particular investigator @ different
points in time, as well as by other
investigators
- That is, insights into nature of
reality/mind that are directly perceived
when one stabilizes/clarifies mind
can be experienced in meditation
Training involves applying specific techniques to
stabilize/clarify mind + progress
indicated by extent to which you can
apply instructions. Also during training,
there are structured dialogues between
student & expert (teacher) to monitor
4/97
