Study questions on examination literature
Work & Performance Course 2025-2026
These study questions are intended to help you study the examination literature of the Master’s
course “Work & Performance”. The questions below could be full or partial examination questions
about the articles concerned.
Schaufeli & Taris (2014), before lecture 2
Schaufeli, W.B. & Taris, T.W. (2014). A critical review of the Job Demands-Resources Model:
Implications for improving work and health. In G. Bauer & O. Hämmig (Eds), Bridging occupational,
organizational and public health (pp. 43-68). Dordrecht: Springer.
1. Mention several similarities and differences between the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model on
the one hand, and the Job Demands Control (JD-C) model and the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI)
model on the other.
Similarities
Employee health and well-being result from a balance between positive (resources) and
negative (demands) job characteristics
Differences
JD-R JD-C + ERI
Assumes that any demand and any resource Only focus on specific job demand or job
may affect employee health and well-being, resources
much broader scope because it potentially
includes all job demands and job resources
More flexible and can be tailored to a much
wider variety of work settings.
Heuristic use and represents a way of thinking Relating well defined and specific sets of
concepts to each other
2. Explain the differences between the original JD-R model and the revised JD-R model.
Original JD-R model Revised JD-R model
More focused on the negative state, burn out Also focused on the positive counterpart,
work engagement.
Burn out is treated of two-dimensional Burn out is treated as a unitary construct.
construct, unidrectioanl process. Just demand Initial engagement can lead to development
lead to burn out and resources lead to of resources which further enhance positive
engagement. work experiences and outcomes over time.
Burn out leads to health problems, such as
depression, or heart diseases or
psychosomatic problems. Thus, burnout is
expected to mediate between job demands
and employee health and well-being through
the draining of mental resources.
Job resources play an extrinsic motivational
role.
The revised model offers a more nuanced, dynamic and theoretically integrated understanding of
how demands and resources influence employee well-being and performance over time.
,3. The focus of the revised JD-R model is on two processes: the health impairment process and the
motivational process. Describe these processes.
The health impairment process = Burnout is expected to mediate the relation between job
demands and employee health and well-being (at least partly), through the gradual (geleidelijke)
draining of mental resources. So sustained stressors can impair health if not balances by
adequate resources
The motivational process = resources (autonomy, social support and feedback) energize and
motivate employees, encouraging them to invest more effort, which enhances productivity,
satisfaction, energy, work engagement, etc.
4. Describe the revised JD-R model and explain the concepts used.
Different than the original JD-R model it proposed more nuanced relationships between job
characteristics and outcomes. Burn out is one construct and work engagement is the other
construct. Both work as a mediation between job demand or jobs resources to work outcomes.
There are two main processes in the revised JD-R model, namely: health impairment process and
motivational process. The health impairment process: from job demand through burnout to work
engagement and de motivational process: from job resources through work engagement to work
outcomes.
5. It is concluded from the cross-sectional evidence for the JD-R model that: “the joint effect of job
demands and job resources on burnout and engagement adds little beyond their additive effects”
(p. 48). Explain what the authors mean by this.
The interaction between job demand and job resources on burn out and work engagement
isn’t any different than the individual effect of job demands and job resources on these two
outcomes. So if you know someone’s level of job demands and job resources, knowing how they
interact does not substantially improve the prediction of burnout and work engagement. This
also means that the impact of demands depending on the impact of resources (or vice versa), is
relatively weak.
6. In recent developments of the JD-R model, personal resources are also included in the model.
Explain what personal resources are and describe three ways in which they can be incorporated
in the JD-R model.
Personal resources are the psychological characteristics or aspects of the self that are
generally associated with resiliency and that refer to the ability to control and impact one’s
environment successfully. Such as, high resilience, self-efficacy, high self-esteem, optimism, etc.
Like job resources, personal resources are functional in accomplishing work goals, and they
stimulate personal growth and development.
Five ways of how personal resources can be integrated into the JD-R model.
1) Directly related to burnout and work engagement: regardless of the job demand and
resources, the personal resources can lower burnout or improve work engagement
2) Moderation: personal resources can also moderate between the relationship of job demand
and burnout and the relationship between job resources and work engagement. Personal
resources may buffer negative effects of job demands on burnout and may exacerbate
positive effects of job resources on engagement.
3) Mediation: Personal resources can also mediate. For example, autonomy as a job resource,
can lead to more self-efficacy and that can lead to less burnout and more work engagement.
4) Influence the perception of job characteristics : For example, emotional stability may
influence all job demands, resources and influence burnout and work engagement.
5) Personal resources act as a ‘third variable’ : personal resources may influence the job
demands and the job resources or the perception of them. For example, optimistic people
may see workload as a challenge rather than an obstacle.
, 7. Some longitudinal studies showed that a gain spiral (or gain cycle) exists between job resources
or personal resources and work engagement. Explain what a gain spiral is and give an example of
such a gain spiral.
a gain spiral is a cycle with positive effects, a positive interplay between two variables. For
example, workers who experience a lot of self-efficacy have a positive outcome on work
engagement and because of a positive work engagement this promotes the self-efficacy. This
creates a gain spiral.
8. In recent developments, job demands are subdivided into “challenges” and “hindrances”. Explain
the difference between these types of job demands and provide examples. How will challenges
and hindrances influence the occurrence of work engagement and burnout?
Challenges: workload, time pressure, responsibility. These have the potential to promote
mastery, personal growth and future gain.
Hindrances: among others, role conflict, role ambiguity. These could thwart personal growth,
learning and goal attainment.
Both types of job demands are positively related to burnout. However, the relations between job
demands and work engagement varied with the nature of demand (challenges vs hindrances).
- Challenges related positively with work engagement.
- Hindrances related negatively with work engagement
9. A point of criticism concerning the JD-R model is its heuristic character. The demands, resources
and outcomes contained in the model can vary strongly between studies. Substantiate why you
do or do not consider this to be a problem.
It is heuristic because of its broad scope and flexibility. Job demands, job resources and
personal resources are very wide variables. All sorts of demands and resources van be included in
the model. The model is flexible and can be used in a lot of different contexts. But very limited
generalizable. So, it is a descriptive model and not an explanatory model. I don’t consider it as a
problem. You need to use the model as a descriptive model, just to understand the headlines.
You cannot use it as an explanatory model, just use it explorative and then when you find
something just do another research to confirm.
10. In principle, the JD-R model is a model for research at individual level, but it can also be applied to
research at team level. Explain what requirements the measurements of demands, resources and
outcomes must meet according to Schaufeli and Taris.
It all must adhere to the compatibility principle. All variables must be operationalized at the
same level of specify, ensuring that the constructs are comparable and meaningful across the
different levels.
11. Schaufeli and Taris emphasise that the JD-R model is a continuation and integration of previous
theories and models, but that it cannot replace those models. Explain the reason for this.
Because the JD-R model has a lack of specificity. Is don’t specify the ‘why’. It is a building block
for understanding work dynamics, but it can’t replace the dept of explanation provided by
exciting models and theories.
Work & Performance Course 2025-2026
These study questions are intended to help you study the examination literature of the Master’s
course “Work & Performance”. The questions below could be full or partial examination questions
about the articles concerned.
Schaufeli & Taris (2014), before lecture 2
Schaufeli, W.B. & Taris, T.W. (2014). A critical review of the Job Demands-Resources Model:
Implications for improving work and health. In G. Bauer & O. Hämmig (Eds), Bridging occupational,
organizational and public health (pp. 43-68). Dordrecht: Springer.
1. Mention several similarities and differences between the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model on
the one hand, and the Job Demands Control (JD-C) model and the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI)
model on the other.
Similarities
Employee health and well-being result from a balance between positive (resources) and
negative (demands) job characteristics
Differences
JD-R JD-C + ERI
Assumes that any demand and any resource Only focus on specific job demand or job
may affect employee health and well-being, resources
much broader scope because it potentially
includes all job demands and job resources
More flexible and can be tailored to a much
wider variety of work settings.
Heuristic use and represents a way of thinking Relating well defined and specific sets of
concepts to each other
2. Explain the differences between the original JD-R model and the revised JD-R model.
Original JD-R model Revised JD-R model
More focused on the negative state, burn out Also focused on the positive counterpart,
work engagement.
Burn out is treated of two-dimensional Burn out is treated as a unitary construct.
construct, unidrectioanl process. Just demand Initial engagement can lead to development
lead to burn out and resources lead to of resources which further enhance positive
engagement. work experiences and outcomes over time.
Burn out leads to health problems, such as
depression, or heart diseases or
psychosomatic problems. Thus, burnout is
expected to mediate between job demands
and employee health and well-being through
the draining of mental resources.
Job resources play an extrinsic motivational
role.
The revised model offers a more nuanced, dynamic and theoretically integrated understanding of
how demands and resources influence employee well-being and performance over time.
,3. The focus of the revised JD-R model is on two processes: the health impairment process and the
motivational process. Describe these processes.
The health impairment process = Burnout is expected to mediate the relation between job
demands and employee health and well-being (at least partly), through the gradual (geleidelijke)
draining of mental resources. So sustained stressors can impair health if not balances by
adequate resources
The motivational process = resources (autonomy, social support and feedback) energize and
motivate employees, encouraging them to invest more effort, which enhances productivity,
satisfaction, energy, work engagement, etc.
4. Describe the revised JD-R model and explain the concepts used.
Different than the original JD-R model it proposed more nuanced relationships between job
characteristics and outcomes. Burn out is one construct and work engagement is the other
construct. Both work as a mediation between job demand or jobs resources to work outcomes.
There are two main processes in the revised JD-R model, namely: health impairment process and
motivational process. The health impairment process: from job demand through burnout to work
engagement and de motivational process: from job resources through work engagement to work
outcomes.
5. It is concluded from the cross-sectional evidence for the JD-R model that: “the joint effect of job
demands and job resources on burnout and engagement adds little beyond their additive effects”
(p. 48). Explain what the authors mean by this.
The interaction between job demand and job resources on burn out and work engagement
isn’t any different than the individual effect of job demands and job resources on these two
outcomes. So if you know someone’s level of job demands and job resources, knowing how they
interact does not substantially improve the prediction of burnout and work engagement. This
also means that the impact of demands depending on the impact of resources (or vice versa), is
relatively weak.
6. In recent developments of the JD-R model, personal resources are also included in the model.
Explain what personal resources are and describe three ways in which they can be incorporated
in the JD-R model.
Personal resources are the psychological characteristics or aspects of the self that are
generally associated with resiliency and that refer to the ability to control and impact one’s
environment successfully. Such as, high resilience, self-efficacy, high self-esteem, optimism, etc.
Like job resources, personal resources are functional in accomplishing work goals, and they
stimulate personal growth and development.
Five ways of how personal resources can be integrated into the JD-R model.
1) Directly related to burnout and work engagement: regardless of the job demand and
resources, the personal resources can lower burnout or improve work engagement
2) Moderation: personal resources can also moderate between the relationship of job demand
and burnout and the relationship between job resources and work engagement. Personal
resources may buffer negative effects of job demands on burnout and may exacerbate
positive effects of job resources on engagement.
3) Mediation: Personal resources can also mediate. For example, autonomy as a job resource,
can lead to more self-efficacy and that can lead to less burnout and more work engagement.
4) Influence the perception of job characteristics : For example, emotional stability may
influence all job demands, resources and influence burnout and work engagement.
5) Personal resources act as a ‘third variable’ : personal resources may influence the job
demands and the job resources or the perception of them. For example, optimistic people
may see workload as a challenge rather than an obstacle.
, 7. Some longitudinal studies showed that a gain spiral (or gain cycle) exists between job resources
or personal resources and work engagement. Explain what a gain spiral is and give an example of
such a gain spiral.
a gain spiral is a cycle with positive effects, a positive interplay between two variables. For
example, workers who experience a lot of self-efficacy have a positive outcome on work
engagement and because of a positive work engagement this promotes the self-efficacy. This
creates a gain spiral.
8. In recent developments, job demands are subdivided into “challenges” and “hindrances”. Explain
the difference between these types of job demands and provide examples. How will challenges
and hindrances influence the occurrence of work engagement and burnout?
Challenges: workload, time pressure, responsibility. These have the potential to promote
mastery, personal growth and future gain.
Hindrances: among others, role conflict, role ambiguity. These could thwart personal growth,
learning and goal attainment.
Both types of job demands are positively related to burnout. However, the relations between job
demands and work engagement varied with the nature of demand (challenges vs hindrances).
- Challenges related positively with work engagement.
- Hindrances related negatively with work engagement
9. A point of criticism concerning the JD-R model is its heuristic character. The demands, resources
and outcomes contained in the model can vary strongly between studies. Substantiate why you
do or do not consider this to be a problem.
It is heuristic because of its broad scope and flexibility. Job demands, job resources and
personal resources are very wide variables. All sorts of demands and resources van be included in
the model. The model is flexible and can be used in a lot of different contexts. But very limited
generalizable. So, it is a descriptive model and not an explanatory model. I don’t consider it as a
problem. You need to use the model as a descriptive model, just to understand the headlines.
You cannot use it as an explanatory model, just use it explorative and then when you find
something just do another research to confirm.
10. In principle, the JD-R model is a model for research at individual level, but it can also be applied to
research at team level. Explain what requirements the measurements of demands, resources and
outcomes must meet according to Schaufeli and Taris.
It all must adhere to the compatibility principle. All variables must be operationalized at the
same level of specify, ensuring that the constructs are comparable and meaningful across the
different levels.
11. Schaufeli and Taris emphasise that the JD-R model is a continuation and integration of previous
theories and models, but that it cannot replace those models. Explain the reason for this.
Because the JD-R model has a lack of specificity. Is don’t specify the ‘why’. It is a building block
for understanding work dynamics, but it can’t replace the dept of explanation provided by
exciting models and theories.
