1
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY EXAM LATEST UPDATE -2025/2026- 100+
QUESTIONS AND VERIFIED ANSWERS ALL THE BEST
Steady state
Parameter at set point. System NOT changing but energy is used therefore not
equilibrium
Negative feedback
opposite of disturbance direction... return toward SS
positive feedback
continue in disturbance direction... move further from SS
Feedforward
limits the degree of feedback required therefore SAVES ENERGY
Biorhythms
use FF and are triggered by internal clocks NOT the environment
Homeostasis
Relatively stable maintenance of a body parameter -> dynamic constancy
Homeostatic control system
purpose is to keep parameter at set point
Set point
appropriate range... body temp is ~98.6 F
Adaptation
genetic change, set up for survival
, 2
acclimatization
not changing genetics but changing set point, clock reset based on environment
developmental acclimatization
non-reversible acclimatization
Reflex arc
stimulus -> receptor -> afferent pathway -> integrating center -> efferent pathway
-> effector -> response
autocrine
travels thru IF, cell sends message to itself, effector = releaser
cytokine
travels thru IF/plasma/lymph and is messenger of the immune system
Gap junctions
direct channels between adjacent cells, links cytosols, small so limits exchange,
not a barrier of IF
Physiology
integration of anatomy, biology, chemistry and physics
Equation 1
ATP <-> ADP + Pi + energy
Equation 2
Glucose + O2 + ADP + Pi <-> ATP + CO2 + H2O + heat
Equation 3
CO2 + H2O <-> HCO3- + H+
creates a PH issue
, 3
Equation 4
PV = nRT
pressure, volume, n = amount of substance, R = gas constant and T = temperature
juxtacrines
bound to cell membrane (are NOT released) ex. shaking someone's hand sends
msg while staying connected
Endocrine
released by gland or neuron, travel thru plasma, and communicates with distant
effectors
paracrine
released by most cells, travel thru IF, and communicates with neighbor effectors
so can't travel far
neurotransmitter
released by neurons, travel thru IF, and communicates with next neighbor neuron
or effector
Cell
each has same DNA and divide by mitosis
differentiation
all cells start out unspecialized and then becomes specialized
Muscle cell/tissue
generate mechanical force
Nerve cell/tissue
works with electrical signals
Epithelial cell/tissue
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY EXAM LATEST UPDATE -2025/2026- 100+
QUESTIONS AND VERIFIED ANSWERS ALL THE BEST
Steady state
Parameter at set point. System NOT changing but energy is used therefore not
equilibrium
Negative feedback
opposite of disturbance direction... return toward SS
positive feedback
continue in disturbance direction... move further from SS
Feedforward
limits the degree of feedback required therefore SAVES ENERGY
Biorhythms
use FF and are triggered by internal clocks NOT the environment
Homeostasis
Relatively stable maintenance of a body parameter -> dynamic constancy
Homeostatic control system
purpose is to keep parameter at set point
Set point
appropriate range... body temp is ~98.6 F
Adaptation
genetic change, set up for survival
, 2
acclimatization
not changing genetics but changing set point, clock reset based on environment
developmental acclimatization
non-reversible acclimatization
Reflex arc
stimulus -> receptor -> afferent pathway -> integrating center -> efferent pathway
-> effector -> response
autocrine
travels thru IF, cell sends message to itself, effector = releaser
cytokine
travels thru IF/plasma/lymph and is messenger of the immune system
Gap junctions
direct channels between adjacent cells, links cytosols, small so limits exchange,
not a barrier of IF
Physiology
integration of anatomy, biology, chemistry and physics
Equation 1
ATP <-> ADP + Pi + energy
Equation 2
Glucose + O2 + ADP + Pi <-> ATP + CO2 + H2O + heat
Equation 3
CO2 + H2O <-> HCO3- + H+
creates a PH issue
, 3
Equation 4
PV = nRT
pressure, volume, n = amount of substance, R = gas constant and T = temperature
juxtacrines
bound to cell membrane (are NOT released) ex. shaking someone's hand sends
msg while staying connected
Endocrine
released by gland or neuron, travel thru plasma, and communicates with distant
effectors
paracrine
released by most cells, travel thru IF, and communicates with neighbor effectors
so can't travel far
neurotransmitter
released by neurons, travel thru IF, and communicates with next neighbor neuron
or effector
Cell
each has same DNA and divide by mitosis
differentiation
all cells start out unspecialized and then becomes specialized
Muscle cell/tissue
generate mechanical force
Nerve cell/tissue
works with electrical signals
Epithelial cell/tissue
