UNIT I – BASICS OF FINGERPRINTING
INTRODUCTION
A fingerprint is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of partial
fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method of forensic science. Moisture and grease on a
finger result in fingerprints on surfaces such as glass or metal. Human fingerprints are detailed, nearly
unique, difficult to alter, and durable over the life of an individual, making them suitable as long-term
markers of human identity. They may be employed by police or other authorities to identify individuals
who wish to conceal their identity, or to identify people who are incapacitated or deceased and thus
unable to identify themselves, as in the aftermath of a natural disaster.
The term friction ridge skin refers to a specific type of skin, the surface of which has
ridges and furrows, formed by folds in the skin surface. It can be observed on the distal phalanges of the
fingers and thumbs, and also on the palms, toes and soles of the feet. We call these surfaces the volar
surfaces. It is believed that the biological function of these surfaces is to increase the grip and the
mechanical sensitivity of the skin to pressure, movement and vibration. The general flow of the ridges
forms various patterns. Three main categories: arches, loops and whorls can be defined. These patterns
are formed by the conjunction of ridge systems that are articulated around key focal points called core(s)
and delta(s).
Closer inspection reveals that the ridges may break (bifurcate), end, or may be limited in length,
sometimes forming little more than a dot. These latter events are termed minutiae in this chapter,
although various other terms such as points, characteristics, or Galton points are also used. Minutiae can
also form combined arrangements such as lakes (formed by two opposing bifurcations), islands (formed
by two connected ridge endings) or spurs (formed from a bifurcation and ridge ending). The terminology
regarding these latter formations lacks standardisation. The ridges bear pores indented in their summit.
Their function is to allow the secretion of sweat from eccrine glands embedded in the dermis. The pores
themselves vary in shape and relative position along the ridge. The edges of the ridges are also irregular,
often with distinctive shapes. Level 1 relating to the general ridge flow of the ridges, Level 2 to minutiae
(or large deviation of the ridge path) and Level 3 to pores and ridge edge or other details. In addition,
there are other features that may be observed. Creases (some of which are permanent, particularly when
associated with flexures) may have distinctive shapes. Trauma to the skin such as warts, blisters and
scars may also be seen.
,The term fingerprint refers to an impression left by a friction ridge skin area of a finger.
HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTS
1. ANCIENT HISTORY
- Earthenware estimated to be 6000 years old was discovered at an archaeological site in northwest
China and found to bear clearly discernible friction ridge impressions. These prints are
considered the oldest friction ridge skin impressions found to date; however, it is unknown
whether they were deposited by accident or with specific intent, such as to create decorative
patterns or symbols.
,- In this same Neolithic period, friction ridges were being left in other ancient materials by builders.
Just as someone today might leave impressions in cement, early builders left impressions in the
clay used to make bricks.
2. 221 B.C. TO A.D. 1637
- The Chinese were the first culture known to have used friction ridge impressions as a means of
identification.
- The earliest example comes from a Chinese document entitled “The Volume of Crime Scene
Investigation—Burglary”, from the Qin Dynasty. The document contains a description of how
handprints were used as a type of evidence - 221 to 206 B.C.
- During the Qin through Eastern Han dynasties, the most prevalent example of individualization
using friction ridges was the clay seal. Documents consisting of bamboo slips or pages were
rolled with string bindings, and the strings were sealed with clay. On one side of the seal would
be impressed the name of the author, usually in the form of a stamp, and on the other side would
be impressed the fingerprint of the author. The seal was used to show authorship and to prevent
tampering prior to the document reaching the intended reader. It is generally recognized that it
was both the fingerprint and the name that gave the document authenticity - 221 B.C. to 220 A.D.
- In A.D. 650, the Chinese historian Kia Kung-Yen described a previously used means of
identification, writing, “Wooden tablets were inscribed with the terms of the contract and notches
were cut into the sides at the identical places so that the tablets could later be matched, thus
proving them genuine; the significance of the notches was the same as that of the fingerprints of
the present time.
3. 1684 – Friction ridge skin is first described in detailed by Nehemiah Grew in the paper
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Dr. Grew’s description marked the
beginning in the Western Hemisphere of friction ridge skin observations and characterizations.
4. 1687 – Marcello Malpighi credited with being the first to use microscope to study the skin.
,
INTRODUCTION
A fingerprint is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of partial
fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method of forensic science. Moisture and grease on a
finger result in fingerprints on surfaces such as glass or metal. Human fingerprints are detailed, nearly
unique, difficult to alter, and durable over the life of an individual, making them suitable as long-term
markers of human identity. They may be employed by police or other authorities to identify individuals
who wish to conceal their identity, or to identify people who are incapacitated or deceased and thus
unable to identify themselves, as in the aftermath of a natural disaster.
The term friction ridge skin refers to a specific type of skin, the surface of which has
ridges and furrows, formed by folds in the skin surface. It can be observed on the distal phalanges of the
fingers and thumbs, and also on the palms, toes and soles of the feet. We call these surfaces the volar
surfaces. It is believed that the biological function of these surfaces is to increase the grip and the
mechanical sensitivity of the skin to pressure, movement and vibration. The general flow of the ridges
forms various patterns. Three main categories: arches, loops and whorls can be defined. These patterns
are formed by the conjunction of ridge systems that are articulated around key focal points called core(s)
and delta(s).
Closer inspection reveals that the ridges may break (bifurcate), end, or may be limited in length,
sometimes forming little more than a dot. These latter events are termed minutiae in this chapter,
although various other terms such as points, characteristics, or Galton points are also used. Minutiae can
also form combined arrangements such as lakes (formed by two opposing bifurcations), islands (formed
by two connected ridge endings) or spurs (formed from a bifurcation and ridge ending). The terminology
regarding these latter formations lacks standardisation. The ridges bear pores indented in their summit.
Their function is to allow the secretion of sweat from eccrine glands embedded in the dermis. The pores
themselves vary in shape and relative position along the ridge. The edges of the ridges are also irregular,
often with distinctive shapes. Level 1 relating to the general ridge flow of the ridges, Level 2 to minutiae
(or large deviation of the ridge path) and Level 3 to pores and ridge edge or other details. In addition,
there are other features that may be observed. Creases (some of which are permanent, particularly when
associated with flexures) may have distinctive shapes. Trauma to the skin such as warts, blisters and
scars may also be seen.
,The term fingerprint refers to an impression left by a friction ridge skin area of a finger.
HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTS
1. ANCIENT HISTORY
- Earthenware estimated to be 6000 years old was discovered at an archaeological site in northwest
China and found to bear clearly discernible friction ridge impressions. These prints are
considered the oldest friction ridge skin impressions found to date; however, it is unknown
whether they were deposited by accident or with specific intent, such as to create decorative
patterns or symbols.
,- In this same Neolithic period, friction ridges were being left in other ancient materials by builders.
Just as someone today might leave impressions in cement, early builders left impressions in the
clay used to make bricks.
2. 221 B.C. TO A.D. 1637
- The Chinese were the first culture known to have used friction ridge impressions as a means of
identification.
- The earliest example comes from a Chinese document entitled “The Volume of Crime Scene
Investigation—Burglary”, from the Qin Dynasty. The document contains a description of how
handprints were used as a type of evidence - 221 to 206 B.C.
- During the Qin through Eastern Han dynasties, the most prevalent example of individualization
using friction ridges was the clay seal. Documents consisting of bamboo slips or pages were
rolled with string bindings, and the strings were sealed with clay. On one side of the seal would
be impressed the name of the author, usually in the form of a stamp, and on the other side would
be impressed the fingerprint of the author. The seal was used to show authorship and to prevent
tampering prior to the document reaching the intended reader. It is generally recognized that it
was both the fingerprint and the name that gave the document authenticity - 221 B.C. to 220 A.D.
- In A.D. 650, the Chinese historian Kia Kung-Yen described a previously used means of
identification, writing, “Wooden tablets were inscribed with the terms of the contract and notches
were cut into the sides at the identical places so that the tablets could later be matched, thus
proving them genuine; the significance of the notches was the same as that of the fingerprints of
the present time.
3. 1684 – Friction ridge skin is first described in detailed by Nehemiah Grew in the paper
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Dr. Grew’s description marked the
beginning in the Western Hemisphere of friction ridge skin observations and characterizations.
4. 1687 – Marcello Malpighi credited with being the first to use microscope to study the skin.
,
