24-1-2021 OneNote
C&G samenvatting blz 268 t/m 543
Monday, January 11, 2021 2:52 PM
H7 & H8
Encoding: information into long-term memory: Retrieval practice:
Acquiring information and transferring it into long-term memory Practice retrieval of information by making
Elaborative rehearsal results in better memory ---> making something up
meaningful and answering practice questions: Testing
effect.
Paired-associate learning: list of words is presented at encoding, later the
first word of each pair is presented, participants task is to remember the
word it was paired with. Levels of processing theory:
-Shallow processing: little attention to
Self-reference effect: memory is better when asked to relate a word to meaning
yourself -Deep processing: close attention, focusing
on an items meaning
Generation effect: generating material yourself rather than passively and relating it to something meaningful
receiving it enhances learning and retention
Retrieval cue: remembering words in a particular category can serve as a
stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory.
Enactment effect: doing something with an object and be more likely to
remember the object later.
Going to sleep after learning something
Transfer-appropriate processing: memory performance is enhanced when eliminates environmental
the type of coding matches the type of retrieval. stimuli that can interfere with consolidation.
Retrieval: Getting information out of memory Consolidation appears to be enhanced during
State-dependent learning: learning that is associated with a particular sleep -->
internal state, such as mood or awareness. Memory is better when internal also selective: particularly strengthens
state during encoding matcher internal state during encoding. memories that are relevant to us
Mood-congruent memory: when in an happy and cheerful mood positive (may work via salience tags: that are
memories come easily, whereas the reserve is true for when in a sad and attached to memories during encoding)
miserable mood.
Consolidation: the life history of memories
After an event of learning has occurred we remember many details, with
passage of time memories can get lost, change their character of end up
changed from what actually happened.
Consolidation: the process that transforms new memories from a fragile
state in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent stage, in which
they are resistant to disruption.
Synaptic consolidation: Systems consolidation:
Takes place over minutes/hours Takes place over months/years
Involves structural changes at synapses Involves gradual reorganization of
neural circuits in the brain.
Reconsolidation: Possible mechanism for updating memories --> when
memory is retrieved its fragile again --> needs to be consolidated again -->
when in fragile state it can be changed, strengthened or erased.
Memory over life span:
Highly emotional event and personal milestones stand out in memory.
Transition points in lives also appear to be a particular memory.
Reminiscence bump: enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood that is typically found in people over
40.
Young adulthood and adolescence are special times for encoding memories, why?
Self-image hypotheses: Cognitive Cultural life script
Memory is enhanced for events hypotheses: hypotheses:
that occur as a person's self- Periods of rapid Culturally expected events
image of life identity is being change that are occur at a particular time in the
formed followed by stability life span and are easy to
cause stronger recall.
encoding of memories
https://solisservices-my.sharepoint.com/personal/s_c_k_hollermann_students_uu_nl/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={d6c4448f-7c9b-4ded-9b… 1/10
, 24-1-2021 OneNote
Emotion and memory are intertwined --> emotion associated with special events (memory for special events is
stronger)
Stress hormones released after emotional experience increase consolidation of memory for that specific experience.
Evidence also shows that emotion can impair memory --> emotion can cause a focusing of attention on objects that
are important, drawing away attention from other objects and so decreasing memory for those objects.
Flashbulb memories:
Vivid and long-lasting memories --> memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event,
not memory for the event itself. Flashbulb memories also exist for positive memories.
They only occur during highly emotional circumstances and are also remembered for long periods of time, especially
vivid and detailed.
Flashbulb memories are NOT like photographs, memories about flashbulb events change over time
and are often inaccurate or lacking in detail. Only way to check for accuracy is to compare a memory to what actually
happened
or to memory reports collected immediately after the event: Repeated recall.
Factors that affect flashbulb memories:
Emotions decrease memory for peripheral details (due to weapon focus) but enhance the subjective sense of
remembering (vividness of memory, confidence that it's accurate and the feeling of reliving the event).
Rehearsal: we may remember events not because of a special mechanism but because we rehearse the evens after
they occur --> narrative rehearsal hypotheses
When an events aftermath and occurrence are covered extensively in the media. Rehearsal is associated with events
that happened after the flashbulb event.
Constructive nature of memory:
What people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened + additional factors such as the
person's knowledge, experiences and expectations.
The mind 'constructs' memories --> source monitoring (process of determining the origins of memories, knowledge or
beliefs).
Schema: A person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment --> developed through experiences in different
situations. Memory becomes more reliant on schemata over time.
Misinformation effect: Misleading information (called misleading post-event information) is presented after a person
witnesses an event, that can change how the person describes that event later.
Causes:
-original information is forgotten because of retroactive interference: when more recent learning interferes with
memory for something that happened in the past.
-person incorrectly concludes that the source of the memory for the event was the MPI (source monitoring error)
Errors in eyewitness testemonies:
Can be caused by:
• Not paying attention to all relevant details because of the emotional situation during a crime (for example weapon
focus)
• Errors due to familiarity which can result in misidentification of an innocent person due to source monitoring
error.
• Errors due to suggestion during questioning about a crime.
• Increased confidence due to post-event feedback.
H12.3 + H8
Hebbian synapse:
When the axon of neuron A repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing (Cel B) growth or
metabolic change takes place in one or both cells --> increases A's ability to excite B.
Hebbian synapses are essential for associative learning.
https://solisservices-my.sharepoint.com/personal/s_c_k_hollermann_students_uu_nl/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={d6c4448f-7c9b-4ded-9b… 2/10
C&G samenvatting blz 268 t/m 543
Monday, January 11, 2021 2:52 PM
H7 & H8
Encoding: information into long-term memory: Retrieval practice:
Acquiring information and transferring it into long-term memory Practice retrieval of information by making
Elaborative rehearsal results in better memory ---> making something up
meaningful and answering practice questions: Testing
effect.
Paired-associate learning: list of words is presented at encoding, later the
first word of each pair is presented, participants task is to remember the
word it was paired with. Levels of processing theory:
-Shallow processing: little attention to
Self-reference effect: memory is better when asked to relate a word to meaning
yourself -Deep processing: close attention, focusing
on an items meaning
Generation effect: generating material yourself rather than passively and relating it to something meaningful
receiving it enhances learning and retention
Retrieval cue: remembering words in a particular category can serve as a
stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory.
Enactment effect: doing something with an object and be more likely to
remember the object later.
Going to sleep after learning something
Transfer-appropriate processing: memory performance is enhanced when eliminates environmental
the type of coding matches the type of retrieval. stimuli that can interfere with consolidation.
Retrieval: Getting information out of memory Consolidation appears to be enhanced during
State-dependent learning: learning that is associated with a particular sleep -->
internal state, such as mood or awareness. Memory is better when internal also selective: particularly strengthens
state during encoding matcher internal state during encoding. memories that are relevant to us
Mood-congruent memory: when in an happy and cheerful mood positive (may work via salience tags: that are
memories come easily, whereas the reserve is true for when in a sad and attached to memories during encoding)
miserable mood.
Consolidation: the life history of memories
After an event of learning has occurred we remember many details, with
passage of time memories can get lost, change their character of end up
changed from what actually happened.
Consolidation: the process that transforms new memories from a fragile
state in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent stage, in which
they are resistant to disruption.
Synaptic consolidation: Systems consolidation:
Takes place over minutes/hours Takes place over months/years
Involves structural changes at synapses Involves gradual reorganization of
neural circuits in the brain.
Reconsolidation: Possible mechanism for updating memories --> when
memory is retrieved its fragile again --> needs to be consolidated again -->
when in fragile state it can be changed, strengthened or erased.
Memory over life span:
Highly emotional event and personal milestones stand out in memory.
Transition points in lives also appear to be a particular memory.
Reminiscence bump: enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood that is typically found in people over
40.
Young adulthood and adolescence are special times for encoding memories, why?
Self-image hypotheses: Cognitive Cultural life script
Memory is enhanced for events hypotheses: hypotheses:
that occur as a person's self- Periods of rapid Culturally expected events
image of life identity is being change that are occur at a particular time in the
formed followed by stability life span and are easy to
cause stronger recall.
encoding of memories
https://solisservices-my.sharepoint.com/personal/s_c_k_hollermann_students_uu_nl/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={d6c4448f-7c9b-4ded-9b… 1/10
, 24-1-2021 OneNote
Emotion and memory are intertwined --> emotion associated with special events (memory for special events is
stronger)
Stress hormones released after emotional experience increase consolidation of memory for that specific experience.
Evidence also shows that emotion can impair memory --> emotion can cause a focusing of attention on objects that
are important, drawing away attention from other objects and so decreasing memory for those objects.
Flashbulb memories:
Vivid and long-lasting memories --> memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event,
not memory for the event itself. Flashbulb memories also exist for positive memories.
They only occur during highly emotional circumstances and are also remembered for long periods of time, especially
vivid and detailed.
Flashbulb memories are NOT like photographs, memories about flashbulb events change over time
and are often inaccurate or lacking in detail. Only way to check for accuracy is to compare a memory to what actually
happened
or to memory reports collected immediately after the event: Repeated recall.
Factors that affect flashbulb memories:
Emotions decrease memory for peripheral details (due to weapon focus) but enhance the subjective sense of
remembering (vividness of memory, confidence that it's accurate and the feeling of reliving the event).
Rehearsal: we may remember events not because of a special mechanism but because we rehearse the evens after
they occur --> narrative rehearsal hypotheses
When an events aftermath and occurrence are covered extensively in the media. Rehearsal is associated with events
that happened after the flashbulb event.
Constructive nature of memory:
What people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened + additional factors such as the
person's knowledge, experiences and expectations.
The mind 'constructs' memories --> source monitoring (process of determining the origins of memories, knowledge or
beliefs).
Schema: A person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment --> developed through experiences in different
situations. Memory becomes more reliant on schemata over time.
Misinformation effect: Misleading information (called misleading post-event information) is presented after a person
witnesses an event, that can change how the person describes that event later.
Causes:
-original information is forgotten because of retroactive interference: when more recent learning interferes with
memory for something that happened in the past.
-person incorrectly concludes that the source of the memory for the event was the MPI (source monitoring error)
Errors in eyewitness testemonies:
Can be caused by:
• Not paying attention to all relevant details because of the emotional situation during a crime (for example weapon
focus)
• Errors due to familiarity which can result in misidentification of an innocent person due to source monitoring
error.
• Errors due to suggestion during questioning about a crime.
• Increased confidence due to post-event feedback.
H12.3 + H8
Hebbian synapse:
When the axon of neuron A repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing (Cel B) growth or
metabolic change takes place in one or both cells --> increases A's ability to excite B.
Hebbian synapses are essential for associative learning.
https://solisservices-my.sharepoint.com/personal/s_c_k_hollermann_students_uu_nl/_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?sourcedoc={d6c4448f-7c9b-4ded-9b… 2/10
