6. Collecting the data:
Your research project should include empirical research (i.e. primary research) data. The ways
that data can be gathered include:
One-to-one interviews with key informants in an organization (these might be face to
face or by telephone)
Focus groups: discussion & interviews
Participant observation in a relevant social situation, e.g. supermarket
A questionnaire survey, e.g. of relevant people in an organization, or of consumers,
customers etc. This can be done using printed or electronic questionnaires. However,
other approaches can be used too, e.g. autobiography, diary methods, Internet etc.
It is also possible to engage in problem solving research by an analysis of secondary data
relevant to the chosen topic, but you will need to discuss this acceptability of this approach with
your tutor
1. Interviews
Interviews can be grouped into three main types:
i. Structured Interviews
Structured interviews involve the use of questionnaires based on a predetermined and identical
set of questions. The questions are usually read out by a researcher in a neutral tone of voice to
avoid influencing or prompting a particular response from a participant.
ii. Semi-Structured Interviews
The interviewer will have a list of themes and areas to be covered and there may be some
standardized questions, but the interviewer may omit or add to some of these questions or
areas, depending on the situation and the flow of the conversation.
iii. Unstructured Interviews
These are informal discussions where the interviewer wants to explore in- depth a particular
topic with another person in a spontaneous way. However, even in unstructured interviews it is
likely that the researcher would have a pre-decided range of topics to cover in the discussion.
2. Focus Groups
Focus groups are used to gather data, usually in the forms of opinions, from a selected group
of people on a particular and pre-determined topic e.g. consumer topic; political topic etc.
The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some way what is being said (e.g.
,by use of a tape-recorder, video, note-taker etc). The purpose of the discussion is introduced
and discussion ground-rules agreed. The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to
intervene if necessary to resolve group problems.
Focus groups can be a useful way of finding out what the main issues and concerns of any
group are. This can help in questionnaire design or to develop a future interview strategy.
They can be a useful way too, of bringing to the surface issues that might not otherwise have
been discovered: the dynamics of a group can often make people bolder in advancing their
opinions.
3. Participant Observation
As discussed earlier, participant observation is when a researcher attempts to observe in some
way in the group being researched and to share in the experiences being recorded and analyzed.
It can be used in association with other research approaches or as the primary way of gathering
data. It can be a good way of getting below the surface of any situation and to help reveal or
unravel complex causal social processes.The researcher can play an overt or covert role and the
role the researcher can adopt in this situation may be:
i. Complete Participant
The identity and purpose of researcher is not revealed to other group members
The researcher attempts to become a full covert member of the group
Example: study of leadership styles in action
ii. Complete Observer
The purpose of research activity not revealed to those being observed
The researcher does not take part in the activities being observed
Example: a detached study of consumer behaviour in a supermarket
iii. Observer as Participant
The researcher’s role is known to others in the group
esearchers participate in activities, but their engagement with group activities may be
R
fairly superficial or spasmodic, as their role is to observe the ‘real’ participants.
Example: Observing team-building exercises (taking part, but only in a superficial way,
without real emotional involvement).
iv. Participant as Observer
, The researcher’s role is known to all others in the group
The researcher would engage fully in all the activities and experience it totally
themselves, plus observe and talk to other participants about their experiences
Example: Attending and fully participating in an assessment centre selection day and
taking an active part in all the activities
Questionnaires
Main points to remember when designing and using questionnaires:
Questionnaires facilitate the collection of data by asking all, or a sample of people, to
respond to the same questions.
You need to absolutely clear before you design a questionnaire what it is you
want to learn and what data you need to obtain to enlighten you in this search. You
also need to think ahead about how you are going to collate the information you
gather. There is no point in designing a questionnaire that produces a range of
information you find very difficult to collate in any meaningful quantitative or
qualitative way.
The validity (the extent to which the data accurately measures what they were intended
to measure) and reliability (the extent to which the data collection method will yield
consistent findings if replicated by others) of the data you collect depend on the design
of the questionnaire and the words that you use.
Questions can be open or closed:
Open questions: a question is posed, but space is left for the respondent’s own answer (the
questions posed to you in this workbook have all been open questions) e.g. Please tell me which
brand you prefer, and why in the space that follows
Closed: where a limited number of alternative responses to the set question are provided.
These can be in list, category, ranking, scale/rating, grid or other quantitative form. They can be
pre- coded on a questionnaire to facilitate analysis. e.g. Please tick the box shown below with
the brand you prefer
The order and flow of questions should be logical to the respondent.
There can be a low rate of return with questionnaires, so they need to be introduced carefully
and courteously to potential respondents. This introduction can include the use of a covering
letter; offering a prize or other inducement can also improve the rate of return of
Your research project should include empirical research (i.e. primary research) data. The ways
that data can be gathered include:
One-to-one interviews with key informants in an organization (these might be face to
face or by telephone)
Focus groups: discussion & interviews
Participant observation in a relevant social situation, e.g. supermarket
A questionnaire survey, e.g. of relevant people in an organization, or of consumers,
customers etc. This can be done using printed or electronic questionnaires. However,
other approaches can be used too, e.g. autobiography, diary methods, Internet etc.
It is also possible to engage in problem solving research by an analysis of secondary data
relevant to the chosen topic, but you will need to discuss this acceptability of this approach with
your tutor
1. Interviews
Interviews can be grouped into three main types:
i. Structured Interviews
Structured interviews involve the use of questionnaires based on a predetermined and identical
set of questions. The questions are usually read out by a researcher in a neutral tone of voice to
avoid influencing or prompting a particular response from a participant.
ii. Semi-Structured Interviews
The interviewer will have a list of themes and areas to be covered and there may be some
standardized questions, but the interviewer may omit or add to some of these questions or
areas, depending on the situation and the flow of the conversation.
iii. Unstructured Interviews
These are informal discussions where the interviewer wants to explore in- depth a particular
topic with another person in a spontaneous way. However, even in unstructured interviews it is
likely that the researcher would have a pre-decided range of topics to cover in the discussion.
2. Focus Groups
Focus groups are used to gather data, usually in the forms of opinions, from a selected group
of people on a particular and pre-determined topic e.g. consumer topic; political topic etc.
The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some way what is being said (e.g.
,by use of a tape-recorder, video, note-taker etc). The purpose of the discussion is introduced
and discussion ground-rules agreed. The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to
intervene if necessary to resolve group problems.
Focus groups can be a useful way of finding out what the main issues and concerns of any
group are. This can help in questionnaire design or to develop a future interview strategy.
They can be a useful way too, of bringing to the surface issues that might not otherwise have
been discovered: the dynamics of a group can often make people bolder in advancing their
opinions.
3. Participant Observation
As discussed earlier, participant observation is when a researcher attempts to observe in some
way in the group being researched and to share in the experiences being recorded and analyzed.
It can be used in association with other research approaches or as the primary way of gathering
data. It can be a good way of getting below the surface of any situation and to help reveal or
unravel complex causal social processes.The researcher can play an overt or covert role and the
role the researcher can adopt in this situation may be:
i. Complete Participant
The identity and purpose of researcher is not revealed to other group members
The researcher attempts to become a full covert member of the group
Example: study of leadership styles in action
ii. Complete Observer
The purpose of research activity not revealed to those being observed
The researcher does not take part in the activities being observed
Example: a detached study of consumer behaviour in a supermarket
iii. Observer as Participant
The researcher’s role is known to others in the group
esearchers participate in activities, but their engagement with group activities may be
R
fairly superficial or spasmodic, as their role is to observe the ‘real’ participants.
Example: Observing team-building exercises (taking part, but only in a superficial way,
without real emotional involvement).
iv. Participant as Observer
, The researcher’s role is known to all others in the group
The researcher would engage fully in all the activities and experience it totally
themselves, plus observe and talk to other participants about their experiences
Example: Attending and fully participating in an assessment centre selection day and
taking an active part in all the activities
Questionnaires
Main points to remember when designing and using questionnaires:
Questionnaires facilitate the collection of data by asking all, or a sample of people, to
respond to the same questions.
You need to absolutely clear before you design a questionnaire what it is you
want to learn and what data you need to obtain to enlighten you in this search. You
also need to think ahead about how you are going to collate the information you
gather. There is no point in designing a questionnaire that produces a range of
information you find very difficult to collate in any meaningful quantitative or
qualitative way.
The validity (the extent to which the data accurately measures what they were intended
to measure) and reliability (the extent to which the data collection method will yield
consistent findings if replicated by others) of the data you collect depend on the design
of the questionnaire and the words that you use.
Questions can be open or closed:
Open questions: a question is posed, but space is left for the respondent’s own answer (the
questions posed to you in this workbook have all been open questions) e.g. Please tell me which
brand you prefer, and why in the space that follows
Closed: where a limited number of alternative responses to the set question are provided.
These can be in list, category, ranking, scale/rating, grid or other quantitative form. They can be
pre- coded on a questionnaire to facilitate analysis. e.g. Please tick the box shown below with
the brand you prefer
The order and flow of questions should be logical to the respondent.
There can be a low rate of return with questionnaires, so they need to be introduced carefully
and courteously to potential respondents. This introduction can include the use of a covering
letter; offering a prize or other inducement can also improve the rate of return of
