Introduction to Research Methodology Summary
1. Scientific reasoning
2. Sources of Information: Why Research Is Best & How to Find It
3. 3 Three Claims, Four Validities: Interrogation Tools for Consumers of
Research
4. Ethical Guidelines for Psychology Research
5. Identifying good measurement
6. Surveys and Observations: Describing What People Do
7. External validity for frequency claims
8. Association claims- bivariate correlations
9. Causal claims
10. Experiments. Confounding and obscuring variables
11. Experiments with more than one independent variable
12. Quasi experiments and small N designs
13. Replication
, Chapter 1. Scientific reasoning
🔍 What is Empiricism?
Being an empiricist means basing conclusions on systematic observations. Psychologists
develop knowledge by studying humans and animals, either in natural settings or in
carefully controlled environments.
In practice, psychologists act in two roles:
Producers of research (designing and conducting studies)
Consumers of research (applying and analyzing research findings)
Both roles rely on:
✔ Empiricism – using direct, formal observations
✔ Clear scientific communication
🎯 Why the Consumer Role Matters
Professionals such as clinical psychologists, social workers, family therapists, teachers,
business experts rely on research to:
Choose effective therapies and interventions
Identify best educational techniques
Predict consumer behavior and market trends
🔎 As a research consumer, you must “interrogate information”—ask critical questions
and evaluate whether the study supports its conclusions.
📌 Even if something seems logical, you must seek empirical evidence before accepting its
effectiveness.
🧠 Producer vs Consumer of Research
Role Purpose Who?
Producer Create scientific knowledge by Professors, scientists
conducting research
Consume Apply research findings Social workers, teachers, sales reps, HR
r professionals, entrepreneurs
📍 Both roles value empiricism, but differ in direct involvement in research generation.
,🧪 How Scientists Work
1️⃣ Empiricism
Research is based on rigorous, methodical, and verifiable observation
Uses senses and/or measurement tools (thermometers, weight scales,
questionnaires, etc.)
2️⃣ The Theory–Data Cycle
Observation → Theory (Induction) → Prediction (Deduction) → Testing → Evaluation
📎 Example: Harlow’s monkey study
Cupboard theory: Attachment from feeding
Contact comfort theory: Attachment from warmth & comfort
➡️Monkeys preferred the warm cloth mother → supported contact comfort theory
3️⃣ Theory vs Hypothesis vs Data
Concept Definition
Theory Simplified general explanation of how variables relate
Hypothesis Specific prediction based on theory
Data Collected observations from research
🌟 Ideally, hypotheses are preregistered (publicly stated before data collection).
✔ If data support the hypothesis → theory strengthened
❌ If not → theory revised or research redesigned
4️⃣ Studies Do NOT Prove Theories
Scientists avoid saying “prove”; instead they state:
Data support / are consistent with the theory
Data are inconsistent if the hypothesis is not supported
📌 Multiple replications increase confidence.
5️⃣ Good Theories Are Falsifiable
A theory must be testable and capable of being disproven.
,🔥 A prediction is falsifiable when it’s possible to observe something that contradicts it.
⚠ Example: “Chimp will speak if exposed to language for long enough” → vague → cannot be
disproven → bad theory
6️⃣ Science Is a Community Effort – Merton’s Norms
Norm Description
Universalism Claims evaluated on merit, not reputation
Communality Knowledge is shared within the community
Disinterestedness Objective pursuit of truth
Organized Question everything—including own work
skepticism
7️⃣ Types of Research
Type Purpose Example
Basic Expand general knowledge Theoretical studies
Applied Solve real-world problems Therapy effectiveness
Translationa Bridge between basic and Developing treatments from basic
l applied findings
8️⃣ Making Research Public
Published in peer-reviewed journals
Evaluated by field experts before approval
9️⃣ Communicating with the Public
Journalists translate research into accessible stories
⚠️But may misinterpret or exaggerate findings to attract attention
🎬 Video Explanation: The Empirical Cycle
📍 Observation → Induction → Deduction → Testing → New observations
, Chapter 2. Sources of Information: Why Research Is Best & How to Find It
People often rely on experience, intuition, or authority to form beliefs. However, in
psychology, the most reliable source of evidence is empirical research, because it
follows systematic methods and allows comparisons.
Research vs Experience
❌ 1. Experience Lacks Comparison Groups
Without comparing "what happens with vs without" an intervention, we cannot conclude
cause and effect.
Failing to use comparison groups breaks Merton’s norm of organized skepticism—assuming
something works without critically testing it.
🔀 2. Experience Is Confounded
A confound occurs when multiple influences are present, making it unclear which caused
the outcome.
✔ Research studies control variables to isolate cause.
📊 3. Research Results Are Probabilistic
1. Scientific reasoning
2. Sources of Information: Why Research Is Best & How to Find It
3. 3 Three Claims, Four Validities: Interrogation Tools for Consumers of
Research
4. Ethical Guidelines for Psychology Research
5. Identifying good measurement
6. Surveys and Observations: Describing What People Do
7. External validity for frequency claims
8. Association claims- bivariate correlations
9. Causal claims
10. Experiments. Confounding and obscuring variables
11. Experiments with more than one independent variable
12. Quasi experiments and small N designs
13. Replication
, Chapter 1. Scientific reasoning
🔍 What is Empiricism?
Being an empiricist means basing conclusions on systematic observations. Psychologists
develop knowledge by studying humans and animals, either in natural settings or in
carefully controlled environments.
In practice, psychologists act in two roles:
Producers of research (designing and conducting studies)
Consumers of research (applying and analyzing research findings)
Both roles rely on:
✔ Empiricism – using direct, formal observations
✔ Clear scientific communication
🎯 Why the Consumer Role Matters
Professionals such as clinical psychologists, social workers, family therapists, teachers,
business experts rely on research to:
Choose effective therapies and interventions
Identify best educational techniques
Predict consumer behavior and market trends
🔎 As a research consumer, you must “interrogate information”—ask critical questions
and evaluate whether the study supports its conclusions.
📌 Even if something seems logical, you must seek empirical evidence before accepting its
effectiveness.
🧠 Producer vs Consumer of Research
Role Purpose Who?
Producer Create scientific knowledge by Professors, scientists
conducting research
Consume Apply research findings Social workers, teachers, sales reps, HR
r professionals, entrepreneurs
📍 Both roles value empiricism, but differ in direct involvement in research generation.
,🧪 How Scientists Work
1️⃣ Empiricism
Research is based on rigorous, methodical, and verifiable observation
Uses senses and/or measurement tools (thermometers, weight scales,
questionnaires, etc.)
2️⃣ The Theory–Data Cycle
Observation → Theory (Induction) → Prediction (Deduction) → Testing → Evaluation
📎 Example: Harlow’s monkey study
Cupboard theory: Attachment from feeding
Contact comfort theory: Attachment from warmth & comfort
➡️Monkeys preferred the warm cloth mother → supported contact comfort theory
3️⃣ Theory vs Hypothesis vs Data
Concept Definition
Theory Simplified general explanation of how variables relate
Hypothesis Specific prediction based on theory
Data Collected observations from research
🌟 Ideally, hypotheses are preregistered (publicly stated before data collection).
✔ If data support the hypothesis → theory strengthened
❌ If not → theory revised or research redesigned
4️⃣ Studies Do NOT Prove Theories
Scientists avoid saying “prove”; instead they state:
Data support / are consistent with the theory
Data are inconsistent if the hypothesis is not supported
📌 Multiple replications increase confidence.
5️⃣ Good Theories Are Falsifiable
A theory must be testable and capable of being disproven.
,🔥 A prediction is falsifiable when it’s possible to observe something that contradicts it.
⚠ Example: “Chimp will speak if exposed to language for long enough” → vague → cannot be
disproven → bad theory
6️⃣ Science Is a Community Effort – Merton’s Norms
Norm Description
Universalism Claims evaluated on merit, not reputation
Communality Knowledge is shared within the community
Disinterestedness Objective pursuit of truth
Organized Question everything—including own work
skepticism
7️⃣ Types of Research
Type Purpose Example
Basic Expand general knowledge Theoretical studies
Applied Solve real-world problems Therapy effectiveness
Translationa Bridge between basic and Developing treatments from basic
l applied findings
8️⃣ Making Research Public
Published in peer-reviewed journals
Evaluated by field experts before approval
9️⃣ Communicating with the Public
Journalists translate research into accessible stories
⚠️But may misinterpret or exaggerate findings to attract attention
🎬 Video Explanation: The Empirical Cycle
📍 Observation → Induction → Deduction → Testing → New observations
, Chapter 2. Sources of Information: Why Research Is Best & How to Find It
People often rely on experience, intuition, or authority to form beliefs. However, in
psychology, the most reliable source of evidence is empirical research, because it
follows systematic methods and allows comparisons.
Research vs Experience
❌ 1. Experience Lacks Comparison Groups
Without comparing "what happens with vs without" an intervention, we cannot conclude
cause and effect.
Failing to use comparison groups breaks Merton’s norm of organized skepticism—assuming
something works without critically testing it.
🔀 2. Experience Is Confounded
A confound occurs when multiple influences are present, making it unclear which caused
the outcome.
✔ Research studies control variables to isolate cause.
📊 3. Research Results Are Probabilistic
