BIOL 2457 Final Exam Study Guide 2025-
A A A A A A
2026
A
ChapterA1A-
IntroductionAtoAHumanAAnatomyAandAPhysiologyAAnatomyAvs.Aphysiology
A
ogy
• AnatomyAfocusesAonAtheAstructureAofAbodyApartsAandAtheirArelationshipsAtoAoneAanother
,AwhileAphysiologyAdealsAwithAtheAfunctionsAofAbodyAparts.
CharacteristicsAofALivingAThings
• LivingAthingsAexhibitAcharacteristicsAsuchAasAorganization,Ametabolism,Agrowth,Aresponse
AtoAstimuli,AandAreproduction.
HomeostasisAandAOrganASystems
• HomeostasisAisAtheAbody'sAabilityAtoAmaintainAstableAinternalAconditionsAdespiteAexternal
Achanges.
• OrganAsystemsAworkAtogetherAtoAmaintainAhomeostasis,AwithAeachAsystemAhavingAspecific
Afunctions.
AnatomicalAPositionAandADirectionalATerminology
• AnatomicalApositionAisAaAstandardAreferenceApositionAforAtheAbody,AwithAtheAindividual
AstandingAupright,AfacingAforward,AandAarmsAatAtheAsides.
• DirectionalAterminologyAdescribesAtheAlocationAofAbodyApartsArelativeAtoAoneAanother,
AsuchAasAsuperior,Ainferior,Aanterior,AandAposterior.
BodyACavitiesAandAFeedbackAMechanisms
• BodyAcavitiesAhouseAinternalAorgansAandAprovideAprotection.
• FeedbackAmechanismsAincludeAnegativeAfeedbackA(reversesAaAchangeAtoAmaintain
Astability)AandApositiveAfeedbackA(enhancesAorAamplifiesAaAchange).
ChapterA2A-AChemistryAofALife
BigAFourAElementsAandAAcids/Bases
• TheAmajorAelementsAinAtheAhumanAbodyAareAnitrogen,Acarbon,Ahydrogen,AandAoxygen
A(NCHO).
• AcidsAreleaseAhydrogenAionsAandAhaveAaApHAbelowA7,AwhileAbasesAacceptAhydrogenAion
sAandAhaveAaApHAaboveA7.
, MoleculesAofALife
• ProteinsAareApolymersAmadeAofAaminoAacidAmonomersAandAserveAvariousAfunctions,
AincludingAenzymaticAactivity.
ChapterA3A-ACellAStructureAandAFunction
CellAComponentsAandAPlasmaAMembrane
• CellsAconsistAofAthreeAmainAparts:AtheAplasmaAmembrane,Acytoplasm,AandAnucleus.
• TheAplasmaAmembraneAallowsAsmall,AnonpolarAmoleculesAtoAdiffuseAdirectlyAthrough.
CellATransportAandAOrganelles
• PassiveAtransportAincludesAdiffusionAandAosmosis,AwhileAactiveAtransportArequiresAenergy
AtoAmoveAmoleculesAagainstAtheirAconcentrationAgradient.
• OrganellesAlikeAribosomes,Alysosomes,AandAmitochondriaAhaveAspecificAfunctionsAinAthe
Acell.
ChapterA4A-
TissuesAandAMembranesATissueAType
A
sAandAFunctions
• TissuesAareAgroupsAofAcellsAwithAsimilarAstructureAandAfunction.
• MuscleAtissueAcontractsAtoAproduceAmovement,AepithelialAtissueAcoversAbodyAsurfaces,
AandAconnectiveAtissueAsupportsAandAbindsAotherAtissues.
EpithelialAandAConnectiveATissue
• EpithelialAtissueAinAtheAalveoliAaidsAinAgasAexchange,AwhileAskinAepidermisAcontainsA
aAspecificAtypeAofAepithelialAtissue.
• ConnectiveAtissueAinAligaments/tendonsAprovidesAstrengthAandAservesAasAaAtemplateAfor
AboneAformation.
ChapterA5A-
IntegumentaryASystemASkinAFunction
A
sAandAGlands
• TheAskinAservesAasAaAprotectiveAbarrier,AregulatesAbodyAtemperature,AandAhousesAsensory
Areceptors.
• EpidermisAcontainsAkeratinocytesAandAmelanocytes,AwithAsweatAandAsebaceousAglands
AplayingArolesAinAthermoregulation AandAlubrication.
A A A A A A
2026
A
ChapterA1A-
IntroductionAtoAHumanAAnatomyAandAPhysiologyAAnatomyAvs.Aphysiology
A
ogy
• AnatomyAfocusesAonAtheAstructureAofAbodyApartsAandAtheirArelationshipsAtoAoneAanother
,AwhileAphysiologyAdealsAwithAtheAfunctionsAofAbodyAparts.
CharacteristicsAofALivingAThings
• LivingAthingsAexhibitAcharacteristicsAsuchAasAorganization,Ametabolism,Agrowth,Aresponse
AtoAstimuli,AandAreproduction.
HomeostasisAandAOrganASystems
• HomeostasisAisAtheAbody'sAabilityAtoAmaintainAstableAinternalAconditionsAdespiteAexternal
Achanges.
• OrganAsystemsAworkAtogetherAtoAmaintainAhomeostasis,AwithAeachAsystemAhavingAspecific
Afunctions.
AnatomicalAPositionAandADirectionalATerminology
• AnatomicalApositionAisAaAstandardAreferenceApositionAforAtheAbody,AwithAtheAindividual
AstandingAupright,AfacingAforward,AandAarmsAatAtheAsides.
• DirectionalAterminologyAdescribesAtheAlocationAofAbodyApartsArelativeAtoAoneAanother,
AsuchAasAsuperior,Ainferior,Aanterior,AandAposterior.
BodyACavitiesAandAFeedbackAMechanisms
• BodyAcavitiesAhouseAinternalAorgansAandAprovideAprotection.
• FeedbackAmechanismsAincludeAnegativeAfeedbackA(reversesAaAchangeAtoAmaintain
Astability)AandApositiveAfeedbackA(enhancesAorAamplifiesAaAchange).
ChapterA2A-AChemistryAofALife
BigAFourAElementsAandAAcids/Bases
• TheAmajorAelementsAinAtheAhumanAbodyAareAnitrogen,Acarbon,Ahydrogen,AandAoxygen
A(NCHO).
• AcidsAreleaseAhydrogenAionsAandAhaveAaApHAbelowA7,AwhileAbasesAacceptAhydrogenAion
sAandAhaveAaApHAaboveA7.
, MoleculesAofALife
• ProteinsAareApolymersAmadeAofAaminoAacidAmonomersAandAserveAvariousAfunctions,
AincludingAenzymaticAactivity.
ChapterA3A-ACellAStructureAandAFunction
CellAComponentsAandAPlasmaAMembrane
• CellsAconsistAofAthreeAmainAparts:AtheAplasmaAmembrane,Acytoplasm,AandAnucleus.
• TheAplasmaAmembraneAallowsAsmall,AnonpolarAmoleculesAtoAdiffuseAdirectlyAthrough.
CellATransportAandAOrganelles
• PassiveAtransportAincludesAdiffusionAandAosmosis,AwhileAactiveAtransportArequiresAenergy
AtoAmoveAmoleculesAagainstAtheirAconcentrationAgradient.
• OrganellesAlikeAribosomes,Alysosomes,AandAmitochondriaAhaveAspecificAfunctionsAinAthe
Acell.
ChapterA4A-
TissuesAandAMembranesATissueAType
A
sAandAFunctions
• TissuesAareAgroupsAofAcellsAwithAsimilarAstructureAandAfunction.
• MuscleAtissueAcontractsAtoAproduceAmovement,AepithelialAtissueAcoversAbodyAsurfaces,
AandAconnectiveAtissueAsupportsAandAbindsAotherAtissues.
EpithelialAandAConnectiveATissue
• EpithelialAtissueAinAtheAalveoliAaidsAinAgasAexchange,AwhileAskinAepidermisAcontainsA
aAspecificAtypeAofAepithelialAtissue.
• ConnectiveAtissueAinAligaments/tendonsAprovidesAstrengthAandAservesAasAaAtemplateAfor
AboneAformation.
ChapterA5A-
IntegumentaryASystemASkinAFunction
A
sAandAGlands
• TheAskinAservesAasAaAprotectiveAbarrier,AregulatesAbodyAtemperature,AandAhousesAsensory
Areceptors.
• EpidermisAcontainsAkeratinocytesAandAmelanocytes,AwithAsweatAandAsebaceousAglands
AplayingArolesAinAthermoregulation AandAlubrication.
