NURSING BS 231 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY EXAM
2026 COMPREHENSIVE EXAM
◉ Disease. Answer: Interruption, cessation or disorder of a body
system
◉ Etiology. Answer: The cause of a disease
◉ Clinical manifestations. Answer: Symptoms and chief complaints
◉ Morphological changes. Answer: Structural changes that are a
result of the disease process
◉ Etiological factors. Answer: Biologic agents, physical forces,
chemicals, nutritional excess or deficiency, genetic factors
◉ What are the three mechanisms of cellular adaptation?. Answer:
Size: atrophy and hypertrophy
Number: hyperplasia
Irregular shape: dysplasia (severe) and metaplasia (chronic)
,◉ Intercellular accumulation. Answer: Results from normal
substances, abnormal endogenous or exogenous products
◉ Dystrophic pathological calcification. Answer: In injured tissue,
dead cells create calcium deposits that can cause aortic stenosis or
be a result of a fracture or TB
◉ Metastatic Pathological Calcifications. Answer: Caused by an
increase of serum calcium levels in non-injured tissue
◉ Chemical injuries. Answer: Lead, carbon tetrachloride, carbon
monoxide, ethanol, mercury, street drugs
◉ Asphyxiation injuries. Answer: Suffocation, strangulation,
drowning
◉ Hypoxic injuries. Answer: Ischemia (lack of blood flow) and
anoxia (lack of oxygen)
◉ What does cellular aging cause?. Answer: Atrophy, decreased
functioning
◉ Isotonic solutions. Answer: Will cause no change to cells
0.9% saline
, ◉ Hypertonic solutions. Answer: Will cause cells to shrink/crenate
3% saline or 5% dextrose
◉ Hypotonic solutions. Answer: Will cause cells to swell
0.45% saline
◉ Edema. Answer: Accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces
◉ What are causes of edema?. Answer: Increased capillary
hydrostatic pressure (fluid moves from capillary to interstitial
space)
Decrease in plasma osmotic pressure (decrease in RBC, plasma and
proteins causing fluid to leak into tissues)
Increase in capillary permeability (inflammation causes fluid to leak
into surrounding tissues)
Lymph obstruction
◉ What are the functions of Na as a cation?. Answer: Neuromuscular
irritability, acid base balance through the exchange of water and
bicarb, chemical reactions and membrane transport
◉ Hypernatremia. Answer: Na>147
2026 COMPREHENSIVE EXAM
◉ Disease. Answer: Interruption, cessation or disorder of a body
system
◉ Etiology. Answer: The cause of a disease
◉ Clinical manifestations. Answer: Symptoms and chief complaints
◉ Morphological changes. Answer: Structural changes that are a
result of the disease process
◉ Etiological factors. Answer: Biologic agents, physical forces,
chemicals, nutritional excess or deficiency, genetic factors
◉ What are the three mechanisms of cellular adaptation?. Answer:
Size: atrophy and hypertrophy
Number: hyperplasia
Irregular shape: dysplasia (severe) and metaplasia (chronic)
,◉ Intercellular accumulation. Answer: Results from normal
substances, abnormal endogenous or exogenous products
◉ Dystrophic pathological calcification. Answer: In injured tissue,
dead cells create calcium deposits that can cause aortic stenosis or
be a result of a fracture or TB
◉ Metastatic Pathological Calcifications. Answer: Caused by an
increase of serum calcium levels in non-injured tissue
◉ Chemical injuries. Answer: Lead, carbon tetrachloride, carbon
monoxide, ethanol, mercury, street drugs
◉ Asphyxiation injuries. Answer: Suffocation, strangulation,
drowning
◉ Hypoxic injuries. Answer: Ischemia (lack of blood flow) and
anoxia (lack of oxygen)
◉ What does cellular aging cause?. Answer: Atrophy, decreased
functioning
◉ Isotonic solutions. Answer: Will cause no change to cells
0.9% saline
, ◉ Hypertonic solutions. Answer: Will cause cells to shrink/crenate
3% saline or 5% dextrose
◉ Hypotonic solutions. Answer: Will cause cells to swell
0.45% saline
◉ Edema. Answer: Accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces
◉ What are causes of edema?. Answer: Increased capillary
hydrostatic pressure (fluid moves from capillary to interstitial
space)
Decrease in plasma osmotic pressure (decrease in RBC, plasma and
proteins causing fluid to leak into tissues)
Increase in capillary permeability (inflammation causes fluid to leak
into surrounding tissues)
Lymph obstruction
◉ What are the functions of Na as a cation?. Answer: Neuromuscular
irritability, acid base balance through the exchange of water and
bicarb, chemical reactions and membrane transport
◉ Hypernatremia. Answer: Na>147
