Summary platform Policies
Table of content
introduction to policymaking in Europe.......................................3
WHAT IS MEDIA POLICY(-making)?....................................................3
What is media policy?.......................................................................4
Policy, regulation and governance....................................................5
Media governance............................................................................6
= DIFFERENT KINDS OF POLICIES................................................................................7
DIFFERENT principles underpinning media policies.....................................................8
But also economics objectives.....................................................................................8
But there are more tensions and trade-offs: Multi-level governance...........................9
OVERVIEW OF POLICY DOMAINS AND LEVELS TODAY........................10
EU media policymaking: how it works..............................................12
HOW can we approach PLATFORM governance?........................................................13
Platforms and platform governance..........................................14
Characteristics.......................................................................................................... 14
Digital ‘big tech’ platforms........................................................................................15
How ‘narrow’ do we define platforms?.......................................................................15
Platform Power.......................................................................................................... 16
Processes of ‘platformization’....................................................................................17
Power concentrations in media..................................................................................17
Platform governance as a shared responsibility?.......................................................18
chronologic overview of relevant policies..................................18
FROM MEDIA, TO DIGITAL, TO PLATFORM REGULATION.....................18
Audiovisual policies........................................................................19
Audiovisual Media Services Directive........................................................................19
1️⃣Advertising Rules.................................................................................................. 22
Creative europe: media............................................................................................. 24
Copyright.......................................................................................25
Copyright directive/broadcasting directive/portability...............................................28
Trade policy...................................................................................29
3️⃣ UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of Cultural Diversity (2005)
.................................................................................................................................. 30
OVERVIEW OF key frameworks TODAY......................................................................31
Digital policies...............................................................................38
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS CODE......................................................................38
Investment in research and development........................................39
Horizon europe.......................................................................................................... 41
OVERVIEW OF POLICY DOMAINS AND LEVELS TODAY........................41
DSA........................................................................................................................... 41
1
, DMA........................................................................................................................... 43
AI REGULATION.......................................................................................................... 44
AI Act: different rules for different risk levels.............................................................45
GENERAL DATA PROTECTION REGULATION.......................................45
European strategy for data.............................................................46
Legislative acts..............................................................................47
European Media Freedom Act....................................................................................48
cultural diversity under pressure? Analyzing policymakers’
attempts to boost European audiovisual diversity.....................49
The audiovisual market..................................................................50
Identification of the problem..........................................................52
Lack of circulation of european content...........................................54
Slide but not neceraly doomed........................................................56
For film..........................................................................................57
Media chronology...........................................................................66
Evalutation of the policy.................................................................66
Evalutation....................................................................................67
New challanges..............................................................................68
What is prominence?................................................................................................. 69
What is prominence................................................................................................... 72
Context.........................................................................................73
The European policy framework......................................................75
The National policy framework........................................................77
Class 6.................................................................................... 95
Steps taken:..................................................................................96
Back to europe…..........................................................................115
Class 8.................................................................................. 117
Challenges for developing platform regulation........................................................117
Recap before DSA.................................................................................................... 121
Objectives of the dsa............................................................................................... 123
public consultation.................................................................................................. 124
Timeline for DSA...................................................................................................... 128
Scope...................................................................................................................... 129
Who’ is who............................................................................................................. 130
captured by the dsaPlayers.....................................................................................132
Overview................................................................................................................. 138
Due diligence.......................................................................................................... 143
Systemic Risk.......................................................................................................... 147
Oversight................................................................................................................. 149
Interplay with other mechanisms...........................................................................152
Evaluation............................................................................................................... 157
2
,AI ACT.................................................................................. 161
Context.................................................................................................................... 161
AI categories?.......................................................................................................... 164
From ANI to AGI....................................................................................................... 164
Developing the ai act....................................................................164
Biometric Surveillance & Policing...........................................................................166
Manipulative & Social Scoring AI.............................................................................167
Foundational Models / GPAI (General Purpose AI)...................................................167
Lobbying Pressures and calls for delay....................................................................168
Scope of the AI act.................................................................................................. 170
Major exemptions from the AI Act..........................................................................172
High risk.................................................................................................................. 179
Limited risk.............................................................................................................. 181
Minimal risks........................................................................................................... 182
General-purpose ai models......................................................................................182
Where does chat gpt fit in?......................................................................................182
The role of the ai office............................................................................................ 185
Digital omnibus....................................................................................................... 188
Advantages / strengths AI act..................................................................................190
Drawbacks / open problems....................................................................................193
Link to media........................................................................................................... 196
Copy right................................................................................................................ 197
Competion law.............................................................................198
competition............................................................................................................. 198
Competition law: Legal Instrument..........................................................................206
EU MERGER Regulation (ex-ante assessment).........................................................208
EU ANTITRUST (ex-post assessment)......................................................................220
the digital markets act (DMA)..................................................................................224
introduction to policymaking in Europe
WHAT IS MEDIA POLICY(-making)?
• Policy-making = process that concerns the interaction between
different actors, the institutional structures within which they work
and the objectives that they pursue
• Ideology-driven: cf. serving the views of government in a specific
context
• Policy making is conflict Result of power positions, unequal
negotiation positions, lobbyist = conflictual, yet with a view on
consensus.
• There is no such a thing as an ‘ideal’ policy outcome, nor
perfect policymaking process; always unforeseen dysfunctions.
• Policy making = political The definition of a policy problem is
already ‘political’: “How a policy issue area is identified is political…
because it determines who participates in decision making, the
3
, rhetorical frames and operational definitions used, and the
resources, and goals, considered pertinent” (Braman, S. 2004:154)
Either we define Cultural Diversity, plurality, freedom, as a
challenge or policy objective, or we don’t.
What is media policy?
1. Policy-making is dynamic and evolves over time
• Media policy is not static — what counts as a policy
problem changes with social norms, technology, and public
opinion.
→ Examples:
• In the 1990s–2000s, privacy and personal data were not major
issues.
• Today, debates focus on smartphone use in schools or age
limits for social media.
• New technologies and consumer habits constantly reshape
policy agendas.
2. Policy is political and often irrational
• Decision-making is not always rational or evidence-based — it can
be shaped by political interests, personal agendas, or
electoral motives.
→ Example:
• A Flemish Minister of Media who also oversaw Youth policy
promoted video games and youth documentaries to
appeal to both domains and voters.
• This shows how policies may emerge from opportunistic or
symbolic motives, rather than coherent strategies.
Path dependency: past decisions shape future ones
• Policies often depend on previous frameworks, institutions, and
traditions.
• Example: France’s Netflix tax (2016)
• Built on a long tradition of cultural
protectionism against U.S. dominance (dating back to
the 1920s).
• France’s film fund (CNC) already relied on levies on
broadcasters, advertisers, and video rentals, so it
was easy to extend these taxes to streaming
platforms.
• In contrast, Belgium struggled to adapt, since its legal and
infrastructural systems were less compatible with new players
like Netflix.
4
Table of content
introduction to policymaking in Europe.......................................3
WHAT IS MEDIA POLICY(-making)?....................................................3
What is media policy?.......................................................................4
Policy, regulation and governance....................................................5
Media governance............................................................................6
= DIFFERENT KINDS OF POLICIES................................................................................7
DIFFERENT principles underpinning media policies.....................................................8
But also economics objectives.....................................................................................8
But there are more tensions and trade-offs: Multi-level governance...........................9
OVERVIEW OF POLICY DOMAINS AND LEVELS TODAY........................10
EU media policymaking: how it works..............................................12
HOW can we approach PLATFORM governance?........................................................13
Platforms and platform governance..........................................14
Characteristics.......................................................................................................... 14
Digital ‘big tech’ platforms........................................................................................15
How ‘narrow’ do we define platforms?.......................................................................15
Platform Power.......................................................................................................... 16
Processes of ‘platformization’....................................................................................17
Power concentrations in media..................................................................................17
Platform governance as a shared responsibility?.......................................................18
chronologic overview of relevant policies..................................18
FROM MEDIA, TO DIGITAL, TO PLATFORM REGULATION.....................18
Audiovisual policies........................................................................19
Audiovisual Media Services Directive........................................................................19
1️⃣Advertising Rules.................................................................................................. 22
Creative europe: media............................................................................................. 24
Copyright.......................................................................................25
Copyright directive/broadcasting directive/portability...............................................28
Trade policy...................................................................................29
3️⃣ UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of Cultural Diversity (2005)
.................................................................................................................................. 30
OVERVIEW OF key frameworks TODAY......................................................................31
Digital policies...............................................................................38
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS CODE......................................................................38
Investment in research and development........................................39
Horizon europe.......................................................................................................... 41
OVERVIEW OF POLICY DOMAINS AND LEVELS TODAY........................41
DSA........................................................................................................................... 41
1
, DMA........................................................................................................................... 43
AI REGULATION.......................................................................................................... 44
AI Act: different rules for different risk levels.............................................................45
GENERAL DATA PROTECTION REGULATION.......................................45
European strategy for data.............................................................46
Legislative acts..............................................................................47
European Media Freedom Act....................................................................................48
cultural diversity under pressure? Analyzing policymakers’
attempts to boost European audiovisual diversity.....................49
The audiovisual market..................................................................50
Identification of the problem..........................................................52
Lack of circulation of european content...........................................54
Slide but not neceraly doomed........................................................56
For film..........................................................................................57
Media chronology...........................................................................66
Evalutation of the policy.................................................................66
Evalutation....................................................................................67
New challanges..............................................................................68
What is prominence?................................................................................................. 69
What is prominence................................................................................................... 72
Context.........................................................................................73
The European policy framework......................................................75
The National policy framework........................................................77
Class 6.................................................................................... 95
Steps taken:..................................................................................96
Back to europe…..........................................................................115
Class 8.................................................................................. 117
Challenges for developing platform regulation........................................................117
Recap before DSA.................................................................................................... 121
Objectives of the dsa............................................................................................... 123
public consultation.................................................................................................. 124
Timeline for DSA...................................................................................................... 128
Scope...................................................................................................................... 129
Who’ is who............................................................................................................. 130
captured by the dsaPlayers.....................................................................................132
Overview................................................................................................................. 138
Due diligence.......................................................................................................... 143
Systemic Risk.......................................................................................................... 147
Oversight................................................................................................................. 149
Interplay with other mechanisms...........................................................................152
Evaluation............................................................................................................... 157
2
,AI ACT.................................................................................. 161
Context.................................................................................................................... 161
AI categories?.......................................................................................................... 164
From ANI to AGI....................................................................................................... 164
Developing the ai act....................................................................164
Biometric Surveillance & Policing...........................................................................166
Manipulative & Social Scoring AI.............................................................................167
Foundational Models / GPAI (General Purpose AI)...................................................167
Lobbying Pressures and calls for delay....................................................................168
Scope of the AI act.................................................................................................. 170
Major exemptions from the AI Act..........................................................................172
High risk.................................................................................................................. 179
Limited risk.............................................................................................................. 181
Minimal risks........................................................................................................... 182
General-purpose ai models......................................................................................182
Where does chat gpt fit in?......................................................................................182
The role of the ai office............................................................................................ 185
Digital omnibus....................................................................................................... 188
Advantages / strengths AI act..................................................................................190
Drawbacks / open problems....................................................................................193
Link to media........................................................................................................... 196
Copy right................................................................................................................ 197
Competion law.............................................................................198
competition............................................................................................................. 198
Competition law: Legal Instrument..........................................................................206
EU MERGER Regulation (ex-ante assessment).........................................................208
EU ANTITRUST (ex-post assessment)......................................................................220
the digital markets act (DMA)..................................................................................224
introduction to policymaking in Europe
WHAT IS MEDIA POLICY(-making)?
• Policy-making = process that concerns the interaction between
different actors, the institutional structures within which they work
and the objectives that they pursue
• Ideology-driven: cf. serving the views of government in a specific
context
• Policy making is conflict Result of power positions, unequal
negotiation positions, lobbyist = conflictual, yet with a view on
consensus.
• There is no such a thing as an ‘ideal’ policy outcome, nor
perfect policymaking process; always unforeseen dysfunctions.
• Policy making = political The definition of a policy problem is
already ‘political’: “How a policy issue area is identified is political…
because it determines who participates in decision making, the
3
, rhetorical frames and operational definitions used, and the
resources, and goals, considered pertinent” (Braman, S. 2004:154)
Either we define Cultural Diversity, plurality, freedom, as a
challenge or policy objective, or we don’t.
What is media policy?
1. Policy-making is dynamic and evolves over time
• Media policy is not static — what counts as a policy
problem changes with social norms, technology, and public
opinion.
→ Examples:
• In the 1990s–2000s, privacy and personal data were not major
issues.
• Today, debates focus on smartphone use in schools or age
limits for social media.
• New technologies and consumer habits constantly reshape
policy agendas.
2. Policy is political and often irrational
• Decision-making is not always rational or evidence-based — it can
be shaped by political interests, personal agendas, or
electoral motives.
→ Example:
• A Flemish Minister of Media who also oversaw Youth policy
promoted video games and youth documentaries to
appeal to both domains and voters.
• This shows how policies may emerge from opportunistic or
symbolic motives, rather than coherent strategies.
Path dependency: past decisions shape future ones
• Policies often depend on previous frameworks, institutions, and
traditions.
• Example: France’s Netflix tax (2016)
• Built on a long tradition of cultural
protectionism against U.S. dominance (dating back to
the 1920s).
• France’s film fund (CNC) already relied on levies on
broadcasters, advertisers, and video rentals, so it
was easy to extend these taxes to streaming
platforms.
• In contrast, Belgium struggled to adapt, since its legal and
infrastructural systems were less compatible with new players
like Netflix.
4
