1
BIO 1020 BIOLOGY FINAL STUDY
GUIDE-2026 EDITION
Chapter 1: Scientific Method
• Inductive reasoning draws a generalization from several specific
observations, specific--
>general...impossible to prove the generalization. Inductive is best for
arguments based on experience or observation
• Deductive reasoning gathers all of the information at hand and draws
conclusions from the observations. Deductive is best for observations based
on laws, rules, or other widely accepted principles.
• Scientific Method: Observation>hypothesis>experiment>result>conclusion
Chapter 2: Atoms
• Radioisotopes-have an unstable nucleus, atomic nuclei undergoes
decay...decay is a statistical average used to measure the passage of time
(isotopes have different # of neutrons)
• Ions have a different number of electrons
• Changing the # of protons makes the atom a new element
• Molecule: 2 or more atoms held together by a covalent bond
• Compound: 2 or more different elements held together in a fixed ratio
by any type of bond
Chapter 3: Water
• Water has high specific heat, high heat of vaporization (evaporative
cooling is another mentioned...where when water evaporates the warmest
water molecules are converted to vapor and a cool liquid is left), polarity,
versatility as a solvent, expands upon freezing (because of the orderly
placement of hydrogen bonds in the solid form).
Downloaded by jason mark ()
,2
• Ice is less dense than water because it forms the crystal lattice...which is
why ice floats
• Water molecules form up to 4 hydrogen bonds
• Cohesion: attraction between molecules of the same substance
(responsible for surface tension) vs adhesion...attraction between molecules
of a different substance
• Buffers: minimize pH changes by donating H+ ions when bases are added
and accepting H+ ions when acids are added...blood has a buffering system
• The pH of most living cells is usually around 7.2 or 7.4
Downloaded by jason mark ()
,3
• Acids have a pH below 7 and bases have a pH above 7
Chapter 4: Organic Chemistry Stuff
• Organic compounds= (carbon skeleton+hydrogen/functional groups)
• CO2, and all molecules without carbon are inorganic
• Isomers: same molecular formula, different structures: 2 types: structural
isomers
= different arrangement of covalent bonds; stereoisomers= same arrangement
of covalent bonds, but the spacial arrangement is different.
• Stereoisomers (2 types important): cis-trans isomers are associated with
C=C (double bond carbons) where the larger items are either on the same side
(cis) or opposite side (trans) of carbons. Enantiomers are substances that are
mirror images...sometimes called optical isomers, only one us useful for
organisms...designations such as (R vs S), (D- vs L-) or (+ vs
-)...sugars and amino acids...most amino acids are L and most sugars are D
• Major classes of organic compounds: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
(also called polypeptides), and nucleic acids...get their properties from
functional groups.
Functional Groups: (- are bonds, = are double bonds)
• Hydroxyl is polar, and found in alcohols X-OH
• Carbonyl is polar, and found in aldehydes and keytones X-C=O
• Carboxyl is weakly acidic and found in organic acids (amino acids) X-COOH
• Amino is weakly basic, found in amino acids X-NH2
• Sulfhydryl is non-polar and found in some amino acids X-SH
• Phosphate is weakly acidic and found in phospholipids X-PO4H2
• Methyl is non-polar and found in lipids and other membrane X-CH3
• Carboxyl and amino are always in amino acids
Chapter 5: Biological Molecules
• Monomers make up polymers by linking together via dehydration
synthesis
(removal of a water between them)
• Many polymers = macromolecule
• Polymers can be broken down via hydrolysis (adding a water between
them hydro = water, lysis = split...so splitting of the molecule using water)
Downloaded by jason mark ()
, 4
• Since there’s so much in this chapter, here is the basics...still review the
notes!
1. Carbohydrates
• Contain C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio
• Used for energy storage and structural construction
Downloaded by jason mark ()
BIO 1020 BIOLOGY FINAL STUDY
GUIDE-2026 EDITION
Chapter 1: Scientific Method
• Inductive reasoning draws a generalization from several specific
observations, specific--
>general...impossible to prove the generalization. Inductive is best for
arguments based on experience or observation
• Deductive reasoning gathers all of the information at hand and draws
conclusions from the observations. Deductive is best for observations based
on laws, rules, or other widely accepted principles.
• Scientific Method: Observation>hypothesis>experiment>result>conclusion
Chapter 2: Atoms
• Radioisotopes-have an unstable nucleus, atomic nuclei undergoes
decay...decay is a statistical average used to measure the passage of time
(isotopes have different # of neutrons)
• Ions have a different number of electrons
• Changing the # of protons makes the atom a new element
• Molecule: 2 or more atoms held together by a covalent bond
• Compound: 2 or more different elements held together in a fixed ratio
by any type of bond
Chapter 3: Water
• Water has high specific heat, high heat of vaporization (evaporative
cooling is another mentioned...where when water evaporates the warmest
water molecules are converted to vapor and a cool liquid is left), polarity,
versatility as a solvent, expands upon freezing (because of the orderly
placement of hydrogen bonds in the solid form).
Downloaded by jason mark ()
,2
• Ice is less dense than water because it forms the crystal lattice...which is
why ice floats
• Water molecules form up to 4 hydrogen bonds
• Cohesion: attraction between molecules of the same substance
(responsible for surface tension) vs adhesion...attraction between molecules
of a different substance
• Buffers: minimize pH changes by donating H+ ions when bases are added
and accepting H+ ions when acids are added...blood has a buffering system
• The pH of most living cells is usually around 7.2 or 7.4
Downloaded by jason mark ()
,3
• Acids have a pH below 7 and bases have a pH above 7
Chapter 4: Organic Chemistry Stuff
• Organic compounds= (carbon skeleton+hydrogen/functional groups)
• CO2, and all molecules without carbon are inorganic
• Isomers: same molecular formula, different structures: 2 types: structural
isomers
= different arrangement of covalent bonds; stereoisomers= same arrangement
of covalent bonds, but the spacial arrangement is different.
• Stereoisomers (2 types important): cis-trans isomers are associated with
C=C (double bond carbons) where the larger items are either on the same side
(cis) or opposite side (trans) of carbons. Enantiomers are substances that are
mirror images...sometimes called optical isomers, only one us useful for
organisms...designations such as (R vs S), (D- vs L-) or (+ vs
-)...sugars and amino acids...most amino acids are L and most sugars are D
• Major classes of organic compounds: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
(also called polypeptides), and nucleic acids...get their properties from
functional groups.
Functional Groups: (- are bonds, = are double bonds)
• Hydroxyl is polar, and found in alcohols X-OH
• Carbonyl is polar, and found in aldehydes and keytones X-C=O
• Carboxyl is weakly acidic and found in organic acids (amino acids) X-COOH
• Amino is weakly basic, found in amino acids X-NH2
• Sulfhydryl is non-polar and found in some amino acids X-SH
• Phosphate is weakly acidic and found in phospholipids X-PO4H2
• Methyl is non-polar and found in lipids and other membrane X-CH3
• Carboxyl and amino are always in amino acids
Chapter 5: Biological Molecules
• Monomers make up polymers by linking together via dehydration
synthesis
(removal of a water between them)
• Many polymers = macromolecule
• Polymers can be broken down via hydrolysis (adding a water between
them hydro = water, lysis = split...so splitting of the molecule using water)
Downloaded by jason mark ()
, 4
• Since there’s so much in this chapter, here is the basics...still review the
notes!
1. Carbohydrates
• Contain C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio
• Used for energy storage and structural construction
Downloaded by jason mark ()
