THE LEGO BRICKS OF LIFE
1. SUGAR AND FATS
a. NUTRIENTS
Nutrients are components in food that organisms can use to survival and growth.
- Macronutrients = main ingredients of food that provide energy. They can be divided into
sugars (carbohydrates), fats (lipids), and proteins.
- Micronutrients = come in small quantities. They are useful co-factors for metabolism. They
can be divided into vitamins, minerals, and spore-elements (copper, iodide, iron…)
b. SUGAR
• Types of sugars
There are different types of sugars, divided in:
- Monosaccharides = simplest form of sugars
General formula = CnH2nOn
Most important one = glucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), galactose (C6H12O6), ribose (C5H10O5)
- Disaccharides = bonds of two monosaccharide molecules
They are formed by condensation reaction, where two hydroxyl groups react, and water comes free
OR by hydrolysis from polysaccharides.
Most important one =
Sucrose = glucose + fructose
Lactose = galactose + glucose
Maltose = glucose + glucose
- Oligosaccharides = short chains of repeating monosaccharides (around 3 to 10)
- Polysaccharides = very long chains of repeating monosaccharides made by condensation
reactions.
Most important one =
Glycogen = the monomer unit is alpha glucose. It’s really branched chain of glucose units. It’s the
storage form energy in animals.
Cellulose = the monomer unit is beta glucose; every alternate glucose molecule is inverted.
Starch = the monomer unit is alpha glucose. It can be straight or branched
1
, • Structure
Monosaccharides can be just an open chain form or a ring formation. The ring formation is formed
when the aldehyde or ketone group reacts with hydroxyl group and thereby closing the ring.
- Aldose / Ketose
Aldehyde group = the carbonyl C is the last one in the chain
Ketone group = the carbonyl C is internal to the chain. There are other carbons on both sides of it.
- α/β
Alpha form = O from the carbonyl, which is converted to a hydroxyl group (-OH) is on the opposite side
from the CH2OH group.
Beta form = -OH group is on the same side as the CH2OH group
- D / L (Fischer projection)
D-configuration = the -OH group on the bottom chiral center to the right.
L-configuration = the -OH group on the bottom chiral center to the left.
2
, - Fischer / Haworth
Fischer projection = two-dimensional representation to show the configuration of a carbohydrate. The
vertical bonds are directed away from us, and the horizontal bonds are directed toward us. It’s used
for the linear structure.
Haworth projection = three-dimensional representation to scow the configuration of a carbohydrate.
This is mainly use for ring-structures.
• Nomenclature
1. How many carbon atoms are present?
- Tri, Tetr, Pent…
2. What’s the functional group?
- Aldo- or keto- in front of the name
3. Open-chain or cyclic structure?
- D- or L- configuration
4. Ending of carbohydrates = -ose
• Functions
- To provide energy, brain takes up 25% of glucose levels
- Building blocks, fatty acids + amino acids
- Modification of proteins
- Dissimilation, forming of ATP look a little into dissimilation
- Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle)
- Energy storage in liver + muscles
3
, • Digestion and absorption
1. The digestion of sugars begins with chewing, also known as mastication, which crumbles the
carbohydrate foods into smaller pieces.
2. Amylase enzymes present in the saliva break the glycosidic bonds between the monomeric sugar
units of disaccharides and polysaccharides. It forms disaccharides and monosaccharides.
3. The unbroken carbohydrates reach the stomach into the mixture of chyme and then enter the
small intestine, where there are 2 types of enzymes: pancreatic amylase (breaks down
polysaccharides into disaccharides) and glucosidases (breaks down disaccharides into
monosaccharides).
4. The monosaccharides are then transported through the wall of the small intestine into the
bloodstream and the liver.
c. FAT
• Types of fats
There are many ways to categorized fats:
- Oils / Fats
Oils = triglycerides that remain liquid at room temperature (shorter chain fatty acids).
Fats = triglycerides that remain solid at room temperature (longer chain fatty acids).
- Saturated / unsaturated
Saturated fatty acids = no double bond in hydrocarbon tail (bad for health).
Unsaturated fatty acids = one of more double bonds in hydrocarbon tail (good for health).
- Cis / trans
Cis configuration = rest of the chain is on the same side
Trans configuration = rest of the chain is on the opposite side
4
1. SUGAR AND FATS
a. NUTRIENTS
Nutrients are components in food that organisms can use to survival and growth.
- Macronutrients = main ingredients of food that provide energy. They can be divided into
sugars (carbohydrates), fats (lipids), and proteins.
- Micronutrients = come in small quantities. They are useful co-factors for metabolism. They
can be divided into vitamins, minerals, and spore-elements (copper, iodide, iron…)
b. SUGAR
• Types of sugars
There are different types of sugars, divided in:
- Monosaccharides = simplest form of sugars
General formula = CnH2nOn
Most important one = glucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), galactose (C6H12O6), ribose (C5H10O5)
- Disaccharides = bonds of two monosaccharide molecules
They are formed by condensation reaction, where two hydroxyl groups react, and water comes free
OR by hydrolysis from polysaccharides.
Most important one =
Sucrose = glucose + fructose
Lactose = galactose + glucose
Maltose = glucose + glucose
- Oligosaccharides = short chains of repeating monosaccharides (around 3 to 10)
- Polysaccharides = very long chains of repeating monosaccharides made by condensation
reactions.
Most important one =
Glycogen = the monomer unit is alpha glucose. It’s really branched chain of glucose units. It’s the
storage form energy in animals.
Cellulose = the monomer unit is beta glucose; every alternate glucose molecule is inverted.
Starch = the monomer unit is alpha glucose. It can be straight or branched
1
, • Structure
Monosaccharides can be just an open chain form or a ring formation. The ring formation is formed
when the aldehyde or ketone group reacts with hydroxyl group and thereby closing the ring.
- Aldose / Ketose
Aldehyde group = the carbonyl C is the last one in the chain
Ketone group = the carbonyl C is internal to the chain. There are other carbons on both sides of it.
- α/β
Alpha form = O from the carbonyl, which is converted to a hydroxyl group (-OH) is on the opposite side
from the CH2OH group.
Beta form = -OH group is on the same side as the CH2OH group
- D / L (Fischer projection)
D-configuration = the -OH group on the bottom chiral center to the right.
L-configuration = the -OH group on the bottom chiral center to the left.
2
, - Fischer / Haworth
Fischer projection = two-dimensional representation to show the configuration of a carbohydrate. The
vertical bonds are directed away from us, and the horizontal bonds are directed toward us. It’s used
for the linear structure.
Haworth projection = three-dimensional representation to scow the configuration of a carbohydrate.
This is mainly use for ring-structures.
• Nomenclature
1. How many carbon atoms are present?
- Tri, Tetr, Pent…
2. What’s the functional group?
- Aldo- or keto- in front of the name
3. Open-chain or cyclic structure?
- D- or L- configuration
4. Ending of carbohydrates = -ose
• Functions
- To provide energy, brain takes up 25% of glucose levels
- Building blocks, fatty acids + amino acids
- Modification of proteins
- Dissimilation, forming of ATP look a little into dissimilation
- Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle)
- Energy storage in liver + muscles
3
, • Digestion and absorption
1. The digestion of sugars begins with chewing, also known as mastication, which crumbles the
carbohydrate foods into smaller pieces.
2. Amylase enzymes present in the saliva break the glycosidic bonds between the monomeric sugar
units of disaccharides and polysaccharides. It forms disaccharides and monosaccharides.
3. The unbroken carbohydrates reach the stomach into the mixture of chyme and then enter the
small intestine, where there are 2 types of enzymes: pancreatic amylase (breaks down
polysaccharides into disaccharides) and glucosidases (breaks down disaccharides into
monosaccharides).
4. The monosaccharides are then transported through the wall of the small intestine into the
bloodstream and the liver.
c. FAT
• Types of fats
There are many ways to categorized fats:
- Oils / Fats
Oils = triglycerides that remain liquid at room temperature (shorter chain fatty acids).
Fats = triglycerides that remain solid at room temperature (longer chain fatty acids).
- Saturated / unsaturated
Saturated fatty acids = no double bond in hydrocarbon tail (bad for health).
Unsaturated fatty acids = one of more double bonds in hydrocarbon tail (good for health).
- Cis / trans
Cis configuration = rest of the chain is on the same side
Trans configuration = rest of the chain is on the opposite side
4
