Summary final exam - Meaning in Language
Week 1: Meaning and use.............................................................................................................. 5
1.1 Key terminology week 1...................................................................................................... 5
Theory............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2 Semantics and Semiotics.....................................................................................................7
1.2.1 Article Dingemanse et al. (2015) - Arbitrariness, iconicity, and systematicity in
language..............................................................................................................................8
1.2.2 Relations examined in semantics............................................................................. 10
1.3 Three challenges in doing semantics.................................................................................10
1.4 Compositionality of meaning............................................................................................ 11
1.5 Reference and sense......................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Utterances, sentences, and propositions.......................................................................... 11
1.7 Semantics and pragmatics.................................................................................................11
1.8 Denotation and Connotation............................................................................................ 12
Logic.............................................................................................................................................. 12
1.9 Sets and set notation........................................................................................................ 12
Subsets and Proper subsets.............................................................................................. 13
1.10 Sets and operations on sets............................................................................................ 13
1.11 Challenges to simple intersection................................................................................... 14
1.12 Other approaches to meaning than the logical approach...............................................15
Week 2: Reference and representation.........................................................................................16
2.1 Key terminology week 2.................................................................................................... 16
Theory........................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Reference and Denotation................................................................................................ 18
2.2.1 Referential and representational approach............................................................. 18
2.3 Types of Reference............................................................................................................ 18
2.3.1 Names...................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Nouns and DPs......................................................................................................... 19
2.4 Reference as a Theory of Meaning....................................................................................21
2.4.1 Concepts.................................................................................................................. 21
2.4.2 Theory 1: Necessary and sufficient conditions........................................................ 22
2.4.3 Theory 2: Prototype theory......................................................................................22
2.4.4 Opposing views on the relationship between lexicalized concepts and general
thinking............................................................................................................................. 23
2.5 Deixis................................................................................................................................. 23
1
, 2.5.1 Spatial deixis............................................................................................................ 23
2.5.2 Person deixis............................................................................................................ 24
2.5.3 Social deixis..............................................................................................................24
2.6 Knowledge as context....................................................................................................... 24
Article: Malt et al. (2008) - Talking about walking...................................................................24
Theoretical Framework and Domain Selection....................................................................... 24
Logic.............................................................................................................................................. 26
2.7 Ordered pairs.................................................................................................................... 26
2.8 Composition...................................................................................................................... 27
2.9 Converses.......................................................................................................................... 28
2.10 Identity............................................................................................................................ 28
Week 3: Words and components..................................................................................................29
3.1 Key terminology week 3.................................................................................................... 29
Theory........................................................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Lexical semantics...............................................................................................................30
3.3 Words and lexical items.....................................................................................................30
3.3.1 Problems with pinning down word meaning........................................................... 31
3.4 Lexical relations.................................................................................................................31
3.4.1 Homonymy...............................................................................................................31
3.4.2 Polysemy.................................................................................................................. 31
3.4.3 Synonymy.................................................................................................................32
3.4.4 Antonymy.................................................................................................................32
3.4.5 Hyponymy & Hypernymy......................................................................................... 32
3.4.6 Meronymy................................................................................................................33
3.5 Derivational relations........................................................................................................ 33
3.6 Lexical typology................................................................................................................. 33
3.6.1 Basic color terms (Berlin & Kay, 1969)..................................................................... 34
3.6.2 Core vocabulary....................................................................................................... 34
3.7 Lexical change................................................................................................................... 34
3.7.1 How new words come about................................................................................... 34
3.8 Meaning components: componential analysis..................................................................35
3.8.1 Binary features and redundancy rules..................................................................... 35
3.8.2 Components and relations.......................................................................................36
3.8.3 Decomposition of kinship terms.............................................................................. 36
3.8.4 Problems of decomposition..................................................................................... 36
3.9 Components in grammar.................................................................................................. 36
3.10 Talmy’s typology of motion events..................................................................................37
Logic.............................................................................................................................................. 38
2
, 3.11 Transitivity....................................................................................................................... 38
3.12 Symmetry........................................................................................................................ 38
3.13 Reflexivity........................................................................................................................ 38
3.14 Equivalence..................................................................................................................... 39
Week 4: Propositions and connectives......................................................................................... 40
4.1 Key terminology week 4.................................................................................................... 40
4.2 Formal semantics.............................................................................................................. 41
4.3 Semantic analysis.............................................................................................................. 42
4.4 Propositional vs. predicate logic........................................................................................42
4.5 Valid arguments................................................................................................................ 43
4.6 Well-formed formulas....................................................................................................... 43
4.6.1 Connectives..............................................................................................................44
4.6.2 Construction trees....................................................................................................44
4.6.3 Translations.............................................................................................................. 44
4.7 Semantic relations between sentences.............................................................................45
4.8 Truth tables of connectives............................................................................................... 46
4.8.1 Negation...................................................................................................................46
4.8.2 Conjunction..............................................................................................................46
4.8.3 Disjunction............................................................................................................... 46
4.8.4 Implication............................................................................................................... 46
4.8.5 Biconditional/Material equivalence.........................................................................47
4.8.6 More complex formulas........................................................................................... 47
4.9 Equivalence, tautologies & contradictions........................................................................ 47
4.9.1 Logical equivalence.................................................................................................. 47
4.9.2 Tautology..................................................................................................................48
4.9.3 Contradiction........................................................................................................... 48
Week 5: Predicates and quantifiers.............................................................................................. 49
5.1 Key terminology week 5.................................................................................................... 49
5.2 Predicates..........................................................................................................................49
5.3 Atomic formula rule.......................................................................................................... 50
5.4 Some translation correspondences...................................................................................50
5.5 Other uses of ∧................................................................................................................ 51
5.6 Quantifiers.........................................................................................................................51
5.6.1 Quantifiers + connectives.........................................................................................51
5.6.2 Restricted quantifiers...............................................................................................52
5.7 Restrictions in natural language........................................................................................ 52
5.8 Scope relations.................................................................................................................. 53
5.9 Advantages of predicate logic translation......................................................................... 53
3
, 5.10 Logical equivalences........................................................................................................53
5.11 Identity............................................................................................................................ 54
5.12 The definite article.......................................................................................................... 54
5.13 Models for predicate logic...............................................................................................55
5.13.1 Domain & extensions of predicates....................................................................... 55
5.13.2 The general model................................................................................................. 56
5.13.3 Quantification........................................................................................................ 57
5.13.4 Checking the truth-value of sentences.................................................................. 58
Week 6: Inference and action.......................................................................................................59
6.1 Key terminology week 6.................................................................................................... 59
6.2 Pragmatics.........................................................................................................................60
6.3 Presuppositions.................................................................................................................60
6.3.1 Entailments vs. Presuppositions.............................................................................. 60
6.3.2 Presupposition failure.............................................................................................. 61
6.3.3 Presupposition triggers............................................................................................ 61
6.3.4 Presupposition and focus.........................................................................................62
6.3.5 Canceling presuppositions....................................................................................... 62
6.4 Two approaches to presuppositions................................................................................. 62
6.5 Implicatures & the coordination principle........................................................................ 63
6.5.1 Maxim of relevance..................................................................................................63
6.5.2 Maxim of quantity....................................................................................................63
6.5.3 Maxim of quality...................................................................................................... 64
6.5.4 Maxim of manner.....................................................................................................64
6.6 Generalizing the Gricean Maxims..................................................................................... 64
6.6 Speech acts & Austin’s Speech Act Theory........................................................................65
6.6.1 Performatives...........................................................................................................65
6.6.2 Sentence types.........................................................................................................66
6.6.3 Locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary force................................................ 66
6.6.4 Types of speech acts................................................................................................ 67
6.6.5 Indirect speech acts................................................................................................. 67
Week 1: Meaning and use
1.1 Key terminology week 1
1. Arbitrary: Words show arbitrariness when there are conventional associations between
word forms and meanings
4
Week 1: Meaning and use.............................................................................................................. 5
1.1 Key terminology week 1...................................................................................................... 5
Theory............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2 Semantics and Semiotics.....................................................................................................7
1.2.1 Article Dingemanse et al. (2015) - Arbitrariness, iconicity, and systematicity in
language..............................................................................................................................8
1.2.2 Relations examined in semantics............................................................................. 10
1.3 Three challenges in doing semantics.................................................................................10
1.4 Compositionality of meaning............................................................................................ 11
1.5 Reference and sense......................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Utterances, sentences, and propositions.......................................................................... 11
1.7 Semantics and pragmatics.................................................................................................11
1.8 Denotation and Connotation............................................................................................ 12
Logic.............................................................................................................................................. 12
1.9 Sets and set notation........................................................................................................ 12
Subsets and Proper subsets.............................................................................................. 13
1.10 Sets and operations on sets............................................................................................ 13
1.11 Challenges to simple intersection................................................................................... 14
1.12 Other approaches to meaning than the logical approach...............................................15
Week 2: Reference and representation.........................................................................................16
2.1 Key terminology week 2.................................................................................................... 16
Theory........................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Reference and Denotation................................................................................................ 18
2.2.1 Referential and representational approach............................................................. 18
2.3 Types of Reference............................................................................................................ 18
2.3.1 Names...................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Nouns and DPs......................................................................................................... 19
2.4 Reference as a Theory of Meaning....................................................................................21
2.4.1 Concepts.................................................................................................................. 21
2.4.2 Theory 1: Necessary and sufficient conditions........................................................ 22
2.4.3 Theory 2: Prototype theory......................................................................................22
2.4.4 Opposing views on the relationship between lexicalized concepts and general
thinking............................................................................................................................. 23
2.5 Deixis................................................................................................................................. 23
1
, 2.5.1 Spatial deixis............................................................................................................ 23
2.5.2 Person deixis............................................................................................................ 24
2.5.3 Social deixis..............................................................................................................24
2.6 Knowledge as context....................................................................................................... 24
Article: Malt et al. (2008) - Talking about walking...................................................................24
Theoretical Framework and Domain Selection....................................................................... 24
Logic.............................................................................................................................................. 26
2.7 Ordered pairs.................................................................................................................... 26
2.8 Composition...................................................................................................................... 27
2.9 Converses.......................................................................................................................... 28
2.10 Identity............................................................................................................................ 28
Week 3: Words and components..................................................................................................29
3.1 Key terminology week 3.................................................................................................... 29
Theory........................................................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Lexical semantics...............................................................................................................30
3.3 Words and lexical items.....................................................................................................30
3.3.1 Problems with pinning down word meaning........................................................... 31
3.4 Lexical relations.................................................................................................................31
3.4.1 Homonymy...............................................................................................................31
3.4.2 Polysemy.................................................................................................................. 31
3.4.3 Synonymy.................................................................................................................32
3.4.4 Antonymy.................................................................................................................32
3.4.5 Hyponymy & Hypernymy......................................................................................... 32
3.4.6 Meronymy................................................................................................................33
3.5 Derivational relations........................................................................................................ 33
3.6 Lexical typology................................................................................................................. 33
3.6.1 Basic color terms (Berlin & Kay, 1969)..................................................................... 34
3.6.2 Core vocabulary....................................................................................................... 34
3.7 Lexical change................................................................................................................... 34
3.7.1 How new words come about................................................................................... 34
3.8 Meaning components: componential analysis..................................................................35
3.8.1 Binary features and redundancy rules..................................................................... 35
3.8.2 Components and relations.......................................................................................36
3.8.3 Decomposition of kinship terms.............................................................................. 36
3.8.4 Problems of decomposition..................................................................................... 36
3.9 Components in grammar.................................................................................................. 36
3.10 Talmy’s typology of motion events..................................................................................37
Logic.............................................................................................................................................. 38
2
, 3.11 Transitivity....................................................................................................................... 38
3.12 Symmetry........................................................................................................................ 38
3.13 Reflexivity........................................................................................................................ 38
3.14 Equivalence..................................................................................................................... 39
Week 4: Propositions and connectives......................................................................................... 40
4.1 Key terminology week 4.................................................................................................... 40
4.2 Formal semantics.............................................................................................................. 41
4.3 Semantic analysis.............................................................................................................. 42
4.4 Propositional vs. predicate logic........................................................................................42
4.5 Valid arguments................................................................................................................ 43
4.6 Well-formed formulas....................................................................................................... 43
4.6.1 Connectives..............................................................................................................44
4.6.2 Construction trees....................................................................................................44
4.6.3 Translations.............................................................................................................. 44
4.7 Semantic relations between sentences.............................................................................45
4.8 Truth tables of connectives............................................................................................... 46
4.8.1 Negation...................................................................................................................46
4.8.2 Conjunction..............................................................................................................46
4.8.3 Disjunction............................................................................................................... 46
4.8.4 Implication............................................................................................................... 46
4.8.5 Biconditional/Material equivalence.........................................................................47
4.8.6 More complex formulas........................................................................................... 47
4.9 Equivalence, tautologies & contradictions........................................................................ 47
4.9.1 Logical equivalence.................................................................................................. 47
4.9.2 Tautology..................................................................................................................48
4.9.3 Contradiction........................................................................................................... 48
Week 5: Predicates and quantifiers.............................................................................................. 49
5.1 Key terminology week 5.................................................................................................... 49
5.2 Predicates..........................................................................................................................49
5.3 Atomic formula rule.......................................................................................................... 50
5.4 Some translation correspondences...................................................................................50
5.5 Other uses of ∧................................................................................................................ 51
5.6 Quantifiers.........................................................................................................................51
5.6.1 Quantifiers + connectives.........................................................................................51
5.6.2 Restricted quantifiers...............................................................................................52
5.7 Restrictions in natural language........................................................................................ 52
5.8 Scope relations.................................................................................................................. 53
5.9 Advantages of predicate logic translation......................................................................... 53
3
, 5.10 Logical equivalences........................................................................................................53
5.11 Identity............................................................................................................................ 54
5.12 The definite article.......................................................................................................... 54
5.13 Models for predicate logic...............................................................................................55
5.13.1 Domain & extensions of predicates....................................................................... 55
5.13.2 The general model................................................................................................. 56
5.13.3 Quantification........................................................................................................ 57
5.13.4 Checking the truth-value of sentences.................................................................. 58
Week 6: Inference and action.......................................................................................................59
6.1 Key terminology week 6.................................................................................................... 59
6.2 Pragmatics.........................................................................................................................60
6.3 Presuppositions.................................................................................................................60
6.3.1 Entailments vs. Presuppositions.............................................................................. 60
6.3.2 Presupposition failure.............................................................................................. 61
6.3.3 Presupposition triggers............................................................................................ 61
6.3.4 Presupposition and focus.........................................................................................62
6.3.5 Canceling presuppositions....................................................................................... 62
6.4 Two approaches to presuppositions................................................................................. 62
6.5 Implicatures & the coordination principle........................................................................ 63
6.5.1 Maxim of relevance..................................................................................................63
6.5.2 Maxim of quantity....................................................................................................63
6.5.3 Maxim of quality...................................................................................................... 64
6.5.4 Maxim of manner.....................................................................................................64
6.6 Generalizing the Gricean Maxims..................................................................................... 64
6.6 Speech acts & Austin’s Speech Act Theory........................................................................65
6.6.1 Performatives...........................................................................................................65
6.6.2 Sentence types.........................................................................................................66
6.6.3 Locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary force................................................ 66
6.6.4 Types of speech acts................................................................................................ 67
6.6.5 Indirect speech acts................................................................................................. 67
Week 1: Meaning and use
1.1 Key terminology week 1
1. Arbitrary: Words show arbitrariness when there are conventional associations between
word forms and meanings
4
