Week 1 The European Union in World Politics: An Historical Overview, Chapter 2 –
Hill, Smith & Vanhoonacker
The European Integration process was born out of the Second World War, and shaped by
the development of the Cold War.
The ideas put forward by Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman in 1950 for the creation of a
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) reflected not only the need for overcoming
Franco-German rivalry and new forms of cooperation in Europe, but also the influence of
radical change in international structures.
Several power shifts happened: most European countries had been defeated at different
stages of the war. The US and the UK had not. At the same time the USSR (Soviet Union)
emerged into a more powerful player, with the desire to be recognized as one of the
dominant players in the world arena.
These power shifts created the conditions for the emergence of the Cold War, and a period
of bipolarity.
What was at the centre of a complex interplay of national and international forces:
- Uncertainty about the long-term commitment of the US to European defense.
- Fragility of the pre-war European empires
- And the growing perception of the Soviet Union as a major threat in Europe.
Key structural elements in this process were
- The Marshall Plan (1948) + its associated European Recovery Programme (ERP)
- The North Atlantic Treaty (1949) which became a permanent alliance in 1950
European integration was thus born into the Cold War and shaped by the broader forces of
world politics in the 1940’s.
The Marshall Plan was crucial, providing economic assistance to European countries, but also
dividing between democratic regimes included in the ERP and those that were not, which
became part of the Soviet Bloc.
Thrust (druk) emerged towards integration within Western Europe. This meant that the
Schuman Plan for a coal and steel community was promoted in a context that supported the
intensification of cooperation between those countries at the centre of the ERP.
o Another key factor in the post-WW2 context was the position of the European states.
Europe was ripe for the intrusion of external forces. Germany was defeated, occupied and
divided between the winning allies. The moves to integration can be understood on the one
hand as a means to the recovery of national power and stability, and on the other as a
potential means of collective resistance to external domination. It was clear at the time that
the status of European regimes was at stake both in the west and in the east. In the east
this led to subordination within the Soviet Bloc. In the west the initiation of the European
integration process meant for some the ‘European rescue of the nation-state and for others
the potential emergence of a ‘Third Force’ in the international arena.
o A final factor in the relationship between the foundations of European integration and
international relations in the post-WW2 period was the existence of European colonial
empires.
, The democracies, soon after 1945, began to work towards common institutions, because of the
devastating impact of the war on Europe, and the reaction against nationalism, but also the
increasing fear of Soviet aggression.
Treaties
The Treaty of Brussels (1948) signed by France, the Benelux and the UK agreed to the
principle of automatic mutual defense in the event of attack. A year later, this Treaty was taken
over by NATO and was in 1954 transformed into the Westen European Union (WEU).
The six founding states of the ECSC also made plans for the European Defense Community
(EDC) and a European Political Community, which both did not get ratified. The defense plan
was put before the foreign policy plan, without success. The EDC plan failed because there
was no attempt to coordinate national foreign policies.
The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) formally initiated the Common Foreign and Security Policy,
going into force in 1993.
The Treaty of Rome (1957) established the European Economic Community (EEC).
Yaoundé Agreement
o 4 of the 6 had overseas territories which were fast becoming independent. This rose the
issues of external relations and political foreign policy.
Fouchet Plan
o The Plans he had drawn up are regarded the most significant of all the origins of European
foreign policy cooperation. He proposed a Union of states based on unanimity and
constructive abstention, with the aim of achieving common foreign and defence policies.
The other 5 had issues with the plan and the second Plan, De Gaulle was against.
The key early developments of European integration were at the same time economic and
political. The Marshall Plan aimed at European recovery but led to a division of Europe
between democracies and authoritarian regimes. The ECSC has aims to integrate two key
economic sectors, but had at its core generating stability and security between Franco-
Germany.
The Common Commercial Policy established in the Treaty of Rome was a key element in the
EU’s growing international presence during the 1960’s.
EEC
The EEC also became an integral part of the Bretton Woods system which were themselves
the foundation for what became the multilateral system of international cooperation and
governance.
Whereas the development of ‘European foreign policy’ was strictly contained by the
intergovernmental nature of the foreign policy and security domain, in commercial policy the
Community had exclusive competence, and thus the legal basis for the building of a strong
diplomatic presence.
The CAP was the EEC’s most obvious expression of their emergence as an international
economic actor. But it was also the expression of a contradiction between the Community’s
commitment to trade liberalization and its desire to protect agricultural produces, which was
central to efforts to negotiate trade liberalization at the global level during the 1970’s and
1980’s.
The US had largely supported the creation of the Community because of security and stability,
they had reservations in relation to agriculture, steel, and other major products.
The reform of the Bretton Woods system was either to underline the US leadership or to reflect
the growth of European power. The so-called “Kennedy Round” of negotiations in the GATT
, was centred on the tensions between the US and the EEC, and marked the emergence of the
Community as a trade power.
The agreement of the Yaoundé Convention was largely a means to handle the issues arising
from the decolonization process for those 4 Community member states that had important
colonial parts or connections.
Major development: the creation of the European Political Community (EPC) formalized in the
Luxembourg Report of 1970. Which gave the intergovernmental method a boost and benefited
from the prospective accession of the UK.
o The Copenhagen Report of 1973 made the EPC move on, although it still remained in the
intergovernmental part of the European integration. It increased foreign minister meetings
to at least 4 per year and regularized the cooperation between national embassies in third
country capitals.
o The capacity for initiative fully rested with the half-yearly presidency of the Council of
Ministers.
The Venice Declaration in 1980 recognized the Palestinian right to self-determination as well as
Isreal’s right to secure existence this demonstrated that the European Community had
achieved a foreign policy.
Succes of European political cooperation
A cohesive performance at the Helsinki sessions in 1975 of the Conference on Security and
Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)
Failure of European political cooperation
The 1979 invasion of the Soviet Union into Afghanistan left the European Community flat-
footed given that the crisis was unexpected and that the Irish presidency was in the process
of a handover to Italy. A collective statement took 3 weeks to produce.
The coincidence of global instability with the growing weight of the EEC provided a
demanding context for the further developments of the 1970’s, which were to stretch the
capabilities of the Community in many areas, but also arguably to create the context for the
highly significant changes of the 1980’s and 1990’s. The challenges reflected what appeared
to be fundamental shifts in the global political economy.
In 1971, the ‘Nixon shock’ of economic measures taken unilaterally by the US effectively
ended the international monetary system that has been established in the late 1940’s.
A combination of
o oil crises precipitated by the October War of 1973,
o the stagnation of European economies
o the persistence of inflation
o and the indebtedness of many developing economies created a turbulent atmosphere.
The linkages between politics, economics, and security were intensified and constituted a
chronic crisis in the global political economy.
o A response to this was the establishment of the G-5 that led in the 1980’s to its
expansion into the G-7, while there were also important moves to transform the GATT
into a World Trade Organization.
Faced with its own mix of crises and challenges, the EEC seemed at times to be paralyzed by
its own internal divisions, such as over the British challenge to its budgetary contributions
under the government of Margaret Thatcher. But in these challenges could be found the
, seeds of new advances, both within the Community and for the Community’s role in the world
arena.
o For example: the UK’s budgetary issues in the early 1980’s was followed rapidly by
the move towards ‘completion of the internal market’ in the Community with what
became known as the Single Market Programme (SMP).
In the early 1990’s, again in the presence of radical change to political and security structures
with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the proliferation of post-Soviet states in central and
eastern Europe, the economic and institutional strength of the EEC (and after 1993 – the
European Union) provided the basis for major programmes of economic restructuring and
arguably for a new European political and economic order.
The EEC and later the EU have both affected and reflected the politicization and
securitization of international economic relations that have been a central feature of the global
political economy in the 1980’s.
The question of the Community’s role in the imposing of economic sanctions was a key part
of its external economic relations as a leading if not the leading trade power.
o Put under pressure by the US to play part in punishing those who threatened the
‘western ‘ interests (the USSR, Ira, and others in the Middle East)
Common Foreign and Security Policy
With the creation of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) in the Maastricht
Treaty, the linkage between the Union’s economic weight and its foreign policy responsibilities
became formalized (although foreign policy decisions remained overwhelmingly
intergovernmental)
The emergence of an ethnic conflict in Yugoslavia made the European leaders realize that the
collapse of communism brought new strategic challenges requiring more robust foreign policy
instruments.
The CFSP followed the EPC during the 1991 Intergovernmental Conference (IGC)
o During this IGC it was decided that unanimity rather than QMV remained the rule for
foreign policy with only a co-right of initiative of the European Commission.
With the UK no longer opposing the development of specifically EU defense capabilities, one
of the most important obstacles for a European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) – under
the Lisbon Treaty rebranded as the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) – was
lifted.
The European Communities were initially primarily an economic power. Together with the US,
the EEC was a strong advocate of free trade and with the GATT, it promoted the reduction of
tariff and non-tariff barriers.
Although the EC lacked military capabilities, it nevertheless had an international impact
through such means as sanctions or trade incentives. In addition, it favoured the use of
diplomatic rather than military means to address international conflicts and challenges.
In this chapter, 2 key areas of interaction in the EU’s links to international relations:
1. The interaction between the changing shape of the world arena and the international
development of European integration
2. The integration between politics, economics, and security in the shaping of European
external action.
these 2 sets of interactions were evident in the foundations and development of the European
project.
Hill, Smith & Vanhoonacker
The European Integration process was born out of the Second World War, and shaped by
the development of the Cold War.
The ideas put forward by Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman in 1950 for the creation of a
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) reflected not only the need for overcoming
Franco-German rivalry and new forms of cooperation in Europe, but also the influence of
radical change in international structures.
Several power shifts happened: most European countries had been defeated at different
stages of the war. The US and the UK had not. At the same time the USSR (Soviet Union)
emerged into a more powerful player, with the desire to be recognized as one of the
dominant players in the world arena.
These power shifts created the conditions for the emergence of the Cold War, and a period
of bipolarity.
What was at the centre of a complex interplay of national and international forces:
- Uncertainty about the long-term commitment of the US to European defense.
- Fragility of the pre-war European empires
- And the growing perception of the Soviet Union as a major threat in Europe.
Key structural elements in this process were
- The Marshall Plan (1948) + its associated European Recovery Programme (ERP)
- The North Atlantic Treaty (1949) which became a permanent alliance in 1950
European integration was thus born into the Cold War and shaped by the broader forces of
world politics in the 1940’s.
The Marshall Plan was crucial, providing economic assistance to European countries, but also
dividing between democratic regimes included in the ERP and those that were not, which
became part of the Soviet Bloc.
Thrust (druk) emerged towards integration within Western Europe. This meant that the
Schuman Plan for a coal and steel community was promoted in a context that supported the
intensification of cooperation between those countries at the centre of the ERP.
o Another key factor in the post-WW2 context was the position of the European states.
Europe was ripe for the intrusion of external forces. Germany was defeated, occupied and
divided between the winning allies. The moves to integration can be understood on the one
hand as a means to the recovery of national power and stability, and on the other as a
potential means of collective resistance to external domination. It was clear at the time that
the status of European regimes was at stake both in the west and in the east. In the east
this led to subordination within the Soviet Bloc. In the west the initiation of the European
integration process meant for some the ‘European rescue of the nation-state and for others
the potential emergence of a ‘Third Force’ in the international arena.
o A final factor in the relationship between the foundations of European integration and
international relations in the post-WW2 period was the existence of European colonial
empires.
, The democracies, soon after 1945, began to work towards common institutions, because of the
devastating impact of the war on Europe, and the reaction against nationalism, but also the
increasing fear of Soviet aggression.
Treaties
The Treaty of Brussels (1948) signed by France, the Benelux and the UK agreed to the
principle of automatic mutual defense in the event of attack. A year later, this Treaty was taken
over by NATO and was in 1954 transformed into the Westen European Union (WEU).
The six founding states of the ECSC also made plans for the European Defense Community
(EDC) and a European Political Community, which both did not get ratified. The defense plan
was put before the foreign policy plan, without success. The EDC plan failed because there
was no attempt to coordinate national foreign policies.
The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) formally initiated the Common Foreign and Security Policy,
going into force in 1993.
The Treaty of Rome (1957) established the European Economic Community (EEC).
Yaoundé Agreement
o 4 of the 6 had overseas territories which were fast becoming independent. This rose the
issues of external relations and political foreign policy.
Fouchet Plan
o The Plans he had drawn up are regarded the most significant of all the origins of European
foreign policy cooperation. He proposed a Union of states based on unanimity and
constructive abstention, with the aim of achieving common foreign and defence policies.
The other 5 had issues with the plan and the second Plan, De Gaulle was against.
The key early developments of European integration were at the same time economic and
political. The Marshall Plan aimed at European recovery but led to a division of Europe
between democracies and authoritarian regimes. The ECSC has aims to integrate two key
economic sectors, but had at its core generating stability and security between Franco-
Germany.
The Common Commercial Policy established in the Treaty of Rome was a key element in the
EU’s growing international presence during the 1960’s.
EEC
The EEC also became an integral part of the Bretton Woods system which were themselves
the foundation for what became the multilateral system of international cooperation and
governance.
Whereas the development of ‘European foreign policy’ was strictly contained by the
intergovernmental nature of the foreign policy and security domain, in commercial policy the
Community had exclusive competence, and thus the legal basis for the building of a strong
diplomatic presence.
The CAP was the EEC’s most obvious expression of their emergence as an international
economic actor. But it was also the expression of a contradiction between the Community’s
commitment to trade liberalization and its desire to protect agricultural produces, which was
central to efforts to negotiate trade liberalization at the global level during the 1970’s and
1980’s.
The US had largely supported the creation of the Community because of security and stability,
they had reservations in relation to agriculture, steel, and other major products.
The reform of the Bretton Woods system was either to underline the US leadership or to reflect
the growth of European power. The so-called “Kennedy Round” of negotiations in the GATT
, was centred on the tensions between the US and the EEC, and marked the emergence of the
Community as a trade power.
The agreement of the Yaoundé Convention was largely a means to handle the issues arising
from the decolonization process for those 4 Community member states that had important
colonial parts or connections.
Major development: the creation of the European Political Community (EPC) formalized in the
Luxembourg Report of 1970. Which gave the intergovernmental method a boost and benefited
from the prospective accession of the UK.
o The Copenhagen Report of 1973 made the EPC move on, although it still remained in the
intergovernmental part of the European integration. It increased foreign minister meetings
to at least 4 per year and regularized the cooperation between national embassies in third
country capitals.
o The capacity for initiative fully rested with the half-yearly presidency of the Council of
Ministers.
The Venice Declaration in 1980 recognized the Palestinian right to self-determination as well as
Isreal’s right to secure existence this demonstrated that the European Community had
achieved a foreign policy.
Succes of European political cooperation
A cohesive performance at the Helsinki sessions in 1975 of the Conference on Security and
Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)
Failure of European political cooperation
The 1979 invasion of the Soviet Union into Afghanistan left the European Community flat-
footed given that the crisis was unexpected and that the Irish presidency was in the process
of a handover to Italy. A collective statement took 3 weeks to produce.
The coincidence of global instability with the growing weight of the EEC provided a
demanding context for the further developments of the 1970’s, which were to stretch the
capabilities of the Community in many areas, but also arguably to create the context for the
highly significant changes of the 1980’s and 1990’s. The challenges reflected what appeared
to be fundamental shifts in the global political economy.
In 1971, the ‘Nixon shock’ of economic measures taken unilaterally by the US effectively
ended the international monetary system that has been established in the late 1940’s.
A combination of
o oil crises precipitated by the October War of 1973,
o the stagnation of European economies
o the persistence of inflation
o and the indebtedness of many developing economies created a turbulent atmosphere.
The linkages between politics, economics, and security were intensified and constituted a
chronic crisis in the global political economy.
o A response to this was the establishment of the G-5 that led in the 1980’s to its
expansion into the G-7, while there were also important moves to transform the GATT
into a World Trade Organization.
Faced with its own mix of crises and challenges, the EEC seemed at times to be paralyzed by
its own internal divisions, such as over the British challenge to its budgetary contributions
under the government of Margaret Thatcher. But in these challenges could be found the
, seeds of new advances, both within the Community and for the Community’s role in the world
arena.
o For example: the UK’s budgetary issues in the early 1980’s was followed rapidly by
the move towards ‘completion of the internal market’ in the Community with what
became known as the Single Market Programme (SMP).
In the early 1990’s, again in the presence of radical change to political and security structures
with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the proliferation of post-Soviet states in central and
eastern Europe, the economic and institutional strength of the EEC (and after 1993 – the
European Union) provided the basis for major programmes of economic restructuring and
arguably for a new European political and economic order.
The EEC and later the EU have both affected and reflected the politicization and
securitization of international economic relations that have been a central feature of the global
political economy in the 1980’s.
The question of the Community’s role in the imposing of economic sanctions was a key part
of its external economic relations as a leading if not the leading trade power.
o Put under pressure by the US to play part in punishing those who threatened the
‘western ‘ interests (the USSR, Ira, and others in the Middle East)
Common Foreign and Security Policy
With the creation of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) in the Maastricht
Treaty, the linkage between the Union’s economic weight and its foreign policy responsibilities
became formalized (although foreign policy decisions remained overwhelmingly
intergovernmental)
The emergence of an ethnic conflict in Yugoslavia made the European leaders realize that the
collapse of communism brought new strategic challenges requiring more robust foreign policy
instruments.
The CFSP followed the EPC during the 1991 Intergovernmental Conference (IGC)
o During this IGC it was decided that unanimity rather than QMV remained the rule for
foreign policy with only a co-right of initiative of the European Commission.
With the UK no longer opposing the development of specifically EU defense capabilities, one
of the most important obstacles for a European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) – under
the Lisbon Treaty rebranded as the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) – was
lifted.
The European Communities were initially primarily an economic power. Together with the US,
the EEC was a strong advocate of free trade and with the GATT, it promoted the reduction of
tariff and non-tariff barriers.
Although the EC lacked military capabilities, it nevertheless had an international impact
through such means as sanctions or trade incentives. In addition, it favoured the use of
diplomatic rather than military means to address international conflicts and challenges.
In this chapter, 2 key areas of interaction in the EU’s links to international relations:
1. The interaction between the changing shape of the world arena and the international
development of European integration
2. The integration between politics, economics, and security in the shaping of European
external action.
these 2 sets of interactions were evident in the foundations and development of the European
project.
