DISCRIMINATION LAW
Inhoudsopgave
General information................................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Introduction to Equality and Non-Discrimination Law............................................................................................. 5
1.1. The Concept of Equality...............................................................................................................................................5
1.2. Philosophical Conceptions of Equality.........................................................................................................................6
1.3. The Aims of Discrimination Law..................................................................................................................................7
1.4. The Historical Development of Discrimination Law....................................................................................................7
1) The Constitutional Principle of Equality.....................................................................................................................7
2) ‘Traditional’ Anti-Discrimination Legislation..............................................................................................................7
3) Proactive Discrimination – and Diversity LAw............................................................................................................9
1.5. Key Questions of Discrimination Law..........................................................................................................................9
2.Discrimination Provisions in International Treaties – Non-Discrimination and the ECHR.........................................11
2.1. Who is protected? (personal scope of application)...................................................................................................12
2.2. When are we protected? (material scope)................................................................................................................14
2.3. What is the scope of protection?...............................................................................................................................15
Breach of formal Equality / direct discrimination........................................................................................................15
Breach of Substantive Equality.....................................................................................................................................15
Indirect Discrimination.................................................................................................................................................16
Positive Action..............................................................................................................................................................17
2.4. How does non-discrimination relate to other rights and interest?...........................................................................18
2.5. What legal remedies are available?..........................................................................................................................18
3. Non-Discrimination and EU Primary law................................................................................................................ 19
3.1. introduction...............................................................................................................................................................19
3.2. Nationality discrimination – article 18 TFEU.............................................................................................................20
3.3. Equal pay / gender discrimination – article 157(1) TFEU..........................................................................................23
3.4. Other grounds – article 19 TFEU...............................................................................................................................26
3.5. The Charter of Fundamental Rights..........................................................................................................................27
4. Non-Discrimination and EU Secondary Law: the equality directives !.....................................................................28
4.1. introduction...............................................................................................................................................................28
4.2. personal scope of application....................................................................................................................................29
4.3. material scope of application....................................................................................................................................30
4.4. forms of discrimination..............................................................................................................................................32
1
, 4.5. justification................................................................................................................................................................35
4.6. evidential and enforcement issues............................................................................................................................39
4.7. general principle?......................................................................................................................................................40
4.8. analytical overview of the equality directives...........................................................................................................40
5. Guest lecture by Yves Thiery (15/10/2025) – moot court 1....................................................................................42
5.1. Equality bodies in the EU...........................................................................................................................................42
5.2. Functioning of the disputes chamber of the flanders human rights institute...........................................................45
5.3. Presentation case 2025 (moot court): nawal khan & lashkar singh v. VlaVorm.......................................................49
6. Religion................................................................................................................................................................ 52
6.1. What is ‘religion or belief’? (personal scope)............................................................................................................55
6.2. What types of discrimination?..................................................................................................................................56
6.3. Conflicting rights and interests?................................................................................................................................58
6. Disability (guest lecture by Marie Spinoy)............................................................................................................. 61
Disability (studies/models)?.............................................................................................................................................61
Who is protected?............................................................................................................................................................63
Disability-based discrimination?......................................................................................................................................64
Justifications & reasonable accommodations..................................................................................................................65
7. Intersectionality................................................................................................................................................... 66
The origins........................................................................................................................................................................66
Intersectionality?..............................................................................................................................................................66
Case law............................................................................................................................................................................66
How can we describe intersectionality?...........................................................................................................................67
Critiques on intersectionality in political discourse..........................................................................................................67
Critiques on intersectionality in discrimination law.........................................................................................................68
Other concepts.................................................................................................................................................................68
Intersectional discrimination in EU Legislation................................................................................................................68
Intersectional discrimination in EU case law....................................................................................................................69
Added value of intersectional discrimination in EU Law..................................................................................................71
Challenges of intersectional discrimination in EU law.....................................................................................................71
Transposition of the Directives in Member States: Belgium............................................................................................71
ECHR case law..................................................................................................................................................................72
South Africa......................................................................................................................................................................72
8. Lookism................................................................................................................................................................ 74
Protected grounds: general theory..................................................................................................................................74
A new ground to protect against lookism?......................................................................................................................76
2
, Existing legal protection against lookism.........................................................................................................................77
Cases on legal protection in the absence of explicit prohibition of lookism....................................................................77
9. Protection of Trans and Non-Binary People against Discrimination in European Anti-Discrimination Law...............78
Terminology + YoGyakarta principles...............................................................................................................................78
EU law...............................................................................................................................................................................80
ECtHR................................................................................................................................................................................82
10. Positive Action (guest lecture)............................................................................................................................. 84
Proactive discrimination model........................................................................................................................................84
The concept of positive action..........................................................................................................................................85
History...........................................................................................................................................................................85
Definition......................................................................................................................................................................85
Typology........................................................................................................................................................................85
Active non-discrimination.............................................................................................................................................86
Purposeful inclusive policies.........................................................................................................................................86
Outreach.......................................................................................................................................................................86
Preferential treatment..................................................................................................................................................86
Redefining merit...........................................................................................................................................................87
Positive action and the law..............................................................................................................................................88
Exception to or part of equality?..................................................................................................................................88
International community..............................................................................................................................................89
European Union............................................................................................................................................................90
National legal systems..................................................................................................................................................92
3
, GENERAL INFORMATION
• Teaching and Learning Material
– Notes and power point presentations
– Documentation posted on Toledo
• Active and advanced
– Readings + interactive sessions
– Moot court
– Basic insight into the functioning of UN, CoE, EU is required!
• Exam
– 90% grade: Closed book / written / 1 hypothetical case (similar as in the moot court)
(EU equality directives + case law) + 1 essay question (choose between 2/3 topics but
only 1 answer) Non-discrimination and EU secondary law are the most important
topics!
– 10% grade: moot court
• Current Q of discrimination law;
• Applicants, respondents, judges;
• Written piece + oral presentation (+Qs);
• Groups of 4 to 5;
• EU Directives as main source;
• Other jurisdictions as inspiration;
• Introduction and Q & A by Flemish Human Rights Institute;
• Pass/fail basis;
4
Inhoudsopgave
General information................................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Introduction to Equality and Non-Discrimination Law............................................................................................. 5
1.1. The Concept of Equality...............................................................................................................................................5
1.2. Philosophical Conceptions of Equality.........................................................................................................................6
1.3. The Aims of Discrimination Law..................................................................................................................................7
1.4. The Historical Development of Discrimination Law....................................................................................................7
1) The Constitutional Principle of Equality.....................................................................................................................7
2) ‘Traditional’ Anti-Discrimination Legislation..............................................................................................................7
3) Proactive Discrimination – and Diversity LAw............................................................................................................9
1.5. Key Questions of Discrimination Law..........................................................................................................................9
2.Discrimination Provisions in International Treaties – Non-Discrimination and the ECHR.........................................11
2.1. Who is protected? (personal scope of application)...................................................................................................12
2.2. When are we protected? (material scope)................................................................................................................14
2.3. What is the scope of protection?...............................................................................................................................15
Breach of formal Equality / direct discrimination........................................................................................................15
Breach of Substantive Equality.....................................................................................................................................15
Indirect Discrimination.................................................................................................................................................16
Positive Action..............................................................................................................................................................17
2.4. How does non-discrimination relate to other rights and interest?...........................................................................18
2.5. What legal remedies are available?..........................................................................................................................18
3. Non-Discrimination and EU Primary law................................................................................................................ 19
3.1. introduction...............................................................................................................................................................19
3.2. Nationality discrimination – article 18 TFEU.............................................................................................................20
3.3. Equal pay / gender discrimination – article 157(1) TFEU..........................................................................................23
3.4. Other grounds – article 19 TFEU...............................................................................................................................26
3.5. The Charter of Fundamental Rights..........................................................................................................................27
4. Non-Discrimination and EU Secondary Law: the equality directives !.....................................................................28
4.1. introduction...............................................................................................................................................................28
4.2. personal scope of application....................................................................................................................................29
4.3. material scope of application....................................................................................................................................30
4.4. forms of discrimination..............................................................................................................................................32
1
, 4.5. justification................................................................................................................................................................35
4.6. evidential and enforcement issues............................................................................................................................39
4.7. general principle?......................................................................................................................................................40
4.8. analytical overview of the equality directives...........................................................................................................40
5. Guest lecture by Yves Thiery (15/10/2025) – moot court 1....................................................................................42
5.1. Equality bodies in the EU...........................................................................................................................................42
5.2. Functioning of the disputes chamber of the flanders human rights institute...........................................................45
5.3. Presentation case 2025 (moot court): nawal khan & lashkar singh v. VlaVorm.......................................................49
6. Religion................................................................................................................................................................ 52
6.1. What is ‘religion or belief’? (personal scope)............................................................................................................55
6.2. What types of discrimination?..................................................................................................................................56
6.3. Conflicting rights and interests?................................................................................................................................58
6. Disability (guest lecture by Marie Spinoy)............................................................................................................. 61
Disability (studies/models)?.............................................................................................................................................61
Who is protected?............................................................................................................................................................63
Disability-based discrimination?......................................................................................................................................64
Justifications & reasonable accommodations..................................................................................................................65
7. Intersectionality................................................................................................................................................... 66
The origins........................................................................................................................................................................66
Intersectionality?..............................................................................................................................................................66
Case law............................................................................................................................................................................66
How can we describe intersectionality?...........................................................................................................................67
Critiques on intersectionality in political discourse..........................................................................................................67
Critiques on intersectionality in discrimination law.........................................................................................................68
Other concepts.................................................................................................................................................................68
Intersectional discrimination in EU Legislation................................................................................................................68
Intersectional discrimination in EU case law....................................................................................................................69
Added value of intersectional discrimination in EU Law..................................................................................................71
Challenges of intersectional discrimination in EU law.....................................................................................................71
Transposition of the Directives in Member States: Belgium............................................................................................71
ECHR case law..................................................................................................................................................................72
South Africa......................................................................................................................................................................72
8. Lookism................................................................................................................................................................ 74
Protected grounds: general theory..................................................................................................................................74
A new ground to protect against lookism?......................................................................................................................76
2
, Existing legal protection against lookism.........................................................................................................................77
Cases on legal protection in the absence of explicit prohibition of lookism....................................................................77
9. Protection of Trans and Non-Binary People against Discrimination in European Anti-Discrimination Law...............78
Terminology + YoGyakarta principles...............................................................................................................................78
EU law...............................................................................................................................................................................80
ECtHR................................................................................................................................................................................82
10. Positive Action (guest lecture)............................................................................................................................. 84
Proactive discrimination model........................................................................................................................................84
The concept of positive action..........................................................................................................................................85
History...........................................................................................................................................................................85
Definition......................................................................................................................................................................85
Typology........................................................................................................................................................................85
Active non-discrimination.............................................................................................................................................86
Purposeful inclusive policies.........................................................................................................................................86
Outreach.......................................................................................................................................................................86
Preferential treatment..................................................................................................................................................86
Redefining merit...........................................................................................................................................................87
Positive action and the law..............................................................................................................................................88
Exception to or part of equality?..................................................................................................................................88
International community..............................................................................................................................................89
European Union............................................................................................................................................................90
National legal systems..................................................................................................................................................92
3
, GENERAL INFORMATION
• Teaching and Learning Material
– Notes and power point presentations
– Documentation posted on Toledo
• Active and advanced
– Readings + interactive sessions
– Moot court
– Basic insight into the functioning of UN, CoE, EU is required!
• Exam
– 90% grade: Closed book / written / 1 hypothetical case (similar as in the moot court)
(EU equality directives + case law) + 1 essay question (choose between 2/3 topics but
only 1 answer) Non-discrimination and EU secondary law are the most important
topics!
– 10% grade: moot court
• Current Q of discrimination law;
• Applicants, respondents, judges;
• Written piece + oral presentation (+Qs);
• Groups of 4 to 5;
• EU Directives as main source;
• Other jurisdictions as inspiration;
• Introduction and Q & A by Flemish Human Rights Institute;
• Pass/fail basis;
4
