Articles and handbook chapters summarized, with complementary
comprehension questions.
Solidarity and Social Justice in Contemporary Societies (2024-2025)
Week 1: Introduction
Yerkes & Bal (2022), Chapter 1: ‘Why Solidarity and Social Justice Still Matter
Today’
Chapter 1: "Why Solidarity and Social Justice Still Matter Today" by Mara A. Yerkes and
Michèlle Bal introduces the key themes and concepts of the book. It argues that
solidarity and social justice are essential (yet contested) principles in shaping social
policy aimed at addressing social inequalities.
Yerkes and Bal explore what these concepts mean, why they are controversial, and why
they remain relevant today. The book examines the existence and perception of social
inequalities, public attitudes (including stereotypes), and how these perceptions relate
to ideas of solidarity and justice. Using sociological, psychological, and political-
philosophical perspectives, the book offers an interdisciplinary lens to understand how
societies respond to growing or shifting inequalities. It asks whether these challenges
strengthen or weaken solidarity and how societies differ in their justice values and
tolerance for inequality.
Three key concepts are introduced: solidarity, social justice, and social inequality, along
with others like the welfare state, social policy, social dilemmas, and self-transcendent
values. Stereotypes and the notion of merit are explored in later chapters.
Social inequality is defined as the unequal distribution of burdens and valued
resources based on group membership, often accompanied by devaluation (=
onderschatten van). It involves both disadvantage and unfair privilege, with
particular attention to class, gender, race, migration, health, and sexual
orientation.
Social policy refers to measures addressing inequality and its consequences,
often delivered by the welfare state, but also by NGOs and unions. Such policy
responses are often seen as social dilemmas, where personal interest conflicts
with collective good.
Solidarity is described as a shared identity and willingness to share resources
across groups. Social justice provides the framework for doing so, dealing with
questions of distribution (who gets what), procedures (how it’s decided),
recognition, and the scope of justice.
McCaughy (2024), ‘Inequalities unmasked: Reality of disparities across the EU’
The blog explores persistent and widening inequalities across the European Union in
terms of gender, income, age, and geography.
One of the biggest inequalities known in the EU is gender inequality. The average
gender pay gap remains at 13%, and it’s even wider (23%) at management levels.
Women are overrepresented in low-paid jobs and underrepresented in leadership roles.
,They make up 46% of the EU workforce but face higher emotional demands at work and
carry more of the unpaid domestic workload. Altogether, women work the equivalent of
eight more weeks per year than men when both paid and unpaid work are considered.
Another big factor of inequality is income inequality. Income inequality is increasing in
older EU Member States (pre-2004), while it's decreasing in newer ones (post-2004).
Between 2006 and 2021, the share of people below the poverty line increased in two-
thirds of EU countries. Social benefits reduce income inequality by 42% on average, with
stronger effects in Nordic and some Central and Eastern European countries.
Intergenerational gaps are also a driver of inequality. Young people were hit harder by
job losses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Since 2008, incomes for those aged 60+ in
Southern Europe have increased, while young people’s incomes declined. Older people
benefit from stable pensions, whereas young people rely more on precarious labor
income. Housing has become less affordable, with a significant rise in renting among
those aged 30–39.
Lastly, McCaughy mentiones the inequality concerning the urban–rural division.
Income and employment have grown faster in urban areas, increasing the gap with rural
regions by nearly 20% in the past decade. City dwellers tend to have higher education
and digital skills. However, rural residents often enjoy better housing conditions, lower
costs, and less pollution.
The blog highlights that inequalities across the EU are deeply rooted and multifaceted.
Addressing them requires targeted policies tailored to the specific needs of different
groups and regions.
Comprehension questions McCaughey, 2024.
1. a. McCaughey (2024) outlines and describes four types of social inequalities. Which
four are these?
1) Gender inequality: males experience more welfare then females.
2) Income inequality: more and more people below the poverty line.
3) Intergenerational inequality: younger people have less welfare.
4) Demographic inequality: urban areas have more welfare then rural areas.
b. Look up the definition of social inequalities provided in Chapter 1 of the SSJ book and
explain how the discussed gender and urban-rural differences qualify as social
inequalities. (You can use examples from the text by McCaughey to build your case).
According to the handbook, social inequality is defined as the unequal
distribution of burdens and valued resources based on group membership, often
accompanied by devaluation. Gender differences qualify as social inequality because
women are underrepresented in higher societal positions (unequal distribution of
valued resources), urban-rural differences qualify as social inequality because people in
rural areas have a geographical disadvantage compared to urban areas.
2. a. Trends in income inequality differ by country. What is the general difference found,
according to the text?
, In two-thirds of the European countries the percentage of the population below
the poverty line increased over the last twenty years. Countries with good social
benefits experienced a reduction of income inequality of 42%. These countries are
mostly North-Western European countries like Sweden.
b. McCaughey states that “The welfare state plays a very important role in cushioning
market income inequalities”. What does this mean? What differences do we see between
different types of welfare states?
That government interventions and policy (for example, social benefits or free
healthcare) can reduce the income equality caused by the economic system of
capitalism significantly. Liberal countries have more income inequality then socio-
democratic countries.
3. Based on your reading of the subsection on inequalities between the young and old,
would you say there is an intergenerational divide? Why or why not?
I personally don’t think it is an issue of intergenerational inequality, but that the
intergenerational division is a consequence of a changing society where previous
generations had more luck with (for example) the housing market, which is an indirect
consequence of income inequality. So, there is a division, but I think it is misleading to
state that there is intergenerational inequality because it implies that ‘age’ is the causing
factor of this inequality.
Week 2: Social Justice
Yerkes & Bal (2022), Chapter 4: ‘Social Justice and the Justification of Social
Inequalities’
Chapter 4 focuses on understanding how people perceive, evaluate, and justify social
inequalities. It takes a descriptive social science perspective, particularly from
psychology and sociology, in contrast to normative philosophical, which focus on what
justice should look like. The chapter is central to the book’s interdisciplinary approach,
offering insight into why people either resist or accept injustice.
It begins with a quote from Martin Luther King Jr., highlighting the moral tension
between action and passivity in the face of injustice. This sets the tone for the chapter’s
exploration of the psychological and social mechanisms behind people's reactions to
inequality.
The chapter outlines several key types of justice:
Distributive justice: fairness in the allocation of resources and burdens,
based on three principles: Equity (= rewards based on contribution), equality
(= equal distribution regardless of input), need (= support based on
individual need).
Procedural justice: the perceived fairness of decision-making processes,
including how people are treated and whether their opinions are considered.
Interactional justice: the fairness in interpersonal interactions.
comprehension questions.
Solidarity and Social Justice in Contemporary Societies (2024-2025)
Week 1: Introduction
Yerkes & Bal (2022), Chapter 1: ‘Why Solidarity and Social Justice Still Matter
Today’
Chapter 1: "Why Solidarity and Social Justice Still Matter Today" by Mara A. Yerkes and
Michèlle Bal introduces the key themes and concepts of the book. It argues that
solidarity and social justice are essential (yet contested) principles in shaping social
policy aimed at addressing social inequalities.
Yerkes and Bal explore what these concepts mean, why they are controversial, and why
they remain relevant today. The book examines the existence and perception of social
inequalities, public attitudes (including stereotypes), and how these perceptions relate
to ideas of solidarity and justice. Using sociological, psychological, and political-
philosophical perspectives, the book offers an interdisciplinary lens to understand how
societies respond to growing or shifting inequalities. It asks whether these challenges
strengthen or weaken solidarity and how societies differ in their justice values and
tolerance for inequality.
Three key concepts are introduced: solidarity, social justice, and social inequality, along
with others like the welfare state, social policy, social dilemmas, and self-transcendent
values. Stereotypes and the notion of merit are explored in later chapters.
Social inequality is defined as the unequal distribution of burdens and valued
resources based on group membership, often accompanied by devaluation (=
onderschatten van). It involves both disadvantage and unfair privilege, with
particular attention to class, gender, race, migration, health, and sexual
orientation.
Social policy refers to measures addressing inequality and its consequences,
often delivered by the welfare state, but also by NGOs and unions. Such policy
responses are often seen as social dilemmas, where personal interest conflicts
with collective good.
Solidarity is described as a shared identity and willingness to share resources
across groups. Social justice provides the framework for doing so, dealing with
questions of distribution (who gets what), procedures (how it’s decided),
recognition, and the scope of justice.
McCaughy (2024), ‘Inequalities unmasked: Reality of disparities across the EU’
The blog explores persistent and widening inequalities across the European Union in
terms of gender, income, age, and geography.
One of the biggest inequalities known in the EU is gender inequality. The average
gender pay gap remains at 13%, and it’s even wider (23%) at management levels.
Women are overrepresented in low-paid jobs and underrepresented in leadership roles.
,They make up 46% of the EU workforce but face higher emotional demands at work and
carry more of the unpaid domestic workload. Altogether, women work the equivalent of
eight more weeks per year than men when both paid and unpaid work are considered.
Another big factor of inequality is income inequality. Income inequality is increasing in
older EU Member States (pre-2004), while it's decreasing in newer ones (post-2004).
Between 2006 and 2021, the share of people below the poverty line increased in two-
thirds of EU countries. Social benefits reduce income inequality by 42% on average, with
stronger effects in Nordic and some Central and Eastern European countries.
Intergenerational gaps are also a driver of inequality. Young people were hit harder by
job losses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Since 2008, incomes for those aged 60+ in
Southern Europe have increased, while young people’s incomes declined. Older people
benefit from stable pensions, whereas young people rely more on precarious labor
income. Housing has become less affordable, with a significant rise in renting among
those aged 30–39.
Lastly, McCaughy mentiones the inequality concerning the urban–rural division.
Income and employment have grown faster in urban areas, increasing the gap with rural
regions by nearly 20% in the past decade. City dwellers tend to have higher education
and digital skills. However, rural residents often enjoy better housing conditions, lower
costs, and less pollution.
The blog highlights that inequalities across the EU are deeply rooted and multifaceted.
Addressing them requires targeted policies tailored to the specific needs of different
groups and regions.
Comprehension questions McCaughey, 2024.
1. a. McCaughey (2024) outlines and describes four types of social inequalities. Which
four are these?
1) Gender inequality: males experience more welfare then females.
2) Income inequality: more and more people below the poverty line.
3) Intergenerational inequality: younger people have less welfare.
4) Demographic inequality: urban areas have more welfare then rural areas.
b. Look up the definition of social inequalities provided in Chapter 1 of the SSJ book and
explain how the discussed gender and urban-rural differences qualify as social
inequalities. (You can use examples from the text by McCaughey to build your case).
According to the handbook, social inequality is defined as the unequal
distribution of burdens and valued resources based on group membership, often
accompanied by devaluation. Gender differences qualify as social inequality because
women are underrepresented in higher societal positions (unequal distribution of
valued resources), urban-rural differences qualify as social inequality because people in
rural areas have a geographical disadvantage compared to urban areas.
2. a. Trends in income inequality differ by country. What is the general difference found,
according to the text?
, In two-thirds of the European countries the percentage of the population below
the poverty line increased over the last twenty years. Countries with good social
benefits experienced a reduction of income inequality of 42%. These countries are
mostly North-Western European countries like Sweden.
b. McCaughey states that “The welfare state plays a very important role in cushioning
market income inequalities”. What does this mean? What differences do we see between
different types of welfare states?
That government interventions and policy (for example, social benefits or free
healthcare) can reduce the income equality caused by the economic system of
capitalism significantly. Liberal countries have more income inequality then socio-
democratic countries.
3. Based on your reading of the subsection on inequalities between the young and old,
would you say there is an intergenerational divide? Why or why not?
I personally don’t think it is an issue of intergenerational inequality, but that the
intergenerational division is a consequence of a changing society where previous
generations had more luck with (for example) the housing market, which is an indirect
consequence of income inequality. So, there is a division, but I think it is misleading to
state that there is intergenerational inequality because it implies that ‘age’ is the causing
factor of this inequality.
Week 2: Social Justice
Yerkes & Bal (2022), Chapter 4: ‘Social Justice and the Justification of Social
Inequalities’
Chapter 4 focuses on understanding how people perceive, evaluate, and justify social
inequalities. It takes a descriptive social science perspective, particularly from
psychology and sociology, in contrast to normative philosophical, which focus on what
justice should look like. The chapter is central to the book’s interdisciplinary approach,
offering insight into why people either resist or accept injustice.
It begins with a quote from Martin Luther King Jr., highlighting the moral tension
between action and passivity in the face of injustice. This sets the tone for the chapter’s
exploration of the psychological and social mechanisms behind people's reactions to
inequality.
The chapter outlines several key types of justice:
Distributive justice: fairness in the allocation of resources and burdens,
based on three principles: Equity (= rewards based on contribution), equality
(= equal distribution regardless of input), need (= support based on
individual need).
Procedural justice: the perceived fairness of decision-making processes,
including how people are treated and whether their opinions are considered.
Interactional justice: the fairness in interpersonal interactions.
