Pathophysiology – Exam 2
Study Guide
Module 4
Clinical manifestations – appendicitis
o Right, lower abdominal pain, nausea, occasional diarrhea
Cause of pseudomembranous colitis and nonpharmacologic treatments-
o (Often called antibiotic associated colitis) Acute inflammation and necrosis of
the large intestine caused by Clostridium difficile. Exposure to antibiotics is
the major factor predisposing to the development of this disorder. Stop the
affecting antibiotic. Treat ischemia, fecal transplant, colectomy
Clinical manifestations – cholecystitis-
o Acute: Inflammation of the gallbladder wall.
o Chronic- inflammation of the gallbladder wall attributed to persistent low-
grade irritation from gallstones or recurrent attacks of acute cholecystitis.
Cause of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)-
o Transmission person to person, fecal-oral route, reservoir in water sources.
H. pylori often causes peptic ulcer disease
Clinical manifestations – gastric carcinoma
o Early- none.
o Advanced- anorexia, weight loss and GI bleed
Causes of gastroenteritis due to Salmonella
o Consumption of raw or undercooked chicken/eggs
o Diarrhea, N/V, abdominal pain
Complication of perforated gallbladder-
o Sepsis.
o Rare complication of acute cholecystitis
Cause of jaundice and disease associated with jaundice-
o Elevated levels of bilirubin
o Caused by a buildup of bilirubin, which is a waste product in blood. An
inflamed liver or obstructed bile duct can cause jaundice. Diseases
associated: infections of the liver from a virus (Hepatitis), overuse to Tylenol.
Define the following terms: dysphagia; occult blood-
o Dysphagia: difficult or painful swallowing
o Occult blood (cause by polyps) blood you can’t see with the naked eye, FOBT
(fecal occult blood test). Means there is usually bleeding somewhere in the
digestive tract.
What should patients with newly diagnosed pancreatitis avoid?
o Alcohol
What causes greenish-yellow emesis?
o Bile, caused by vomiting on an empty stomach, or bile reflux.
Most frequent location of peptic ulcers-
o Proximal Duodenum
What types of hepatitis increase the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma?
, o Hep B and C
Clinical manifestations of chronic gastritis
o Upper abdominal pain
o Indigestion
o Bloating
o N/V
o Weight loss/loss of appetite
o Hematemesis may occur bc of damage to the gastric epithelial mucosa
What types of things put a patient at risk for developing acute gastritis?
o Ingesting irritating substances- alcohol, aspirin, NSAIDs, viral bacteria,
autoimmune
Clinical manifestations of acute gastritis-
o Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and postprandial (after meal) discomfort
Causes of hiatal hernia-
o Conditions where intraabdominal pressure increases: ascites, pregnancy,
obesity, chronic straining or coughing
o Loosening of the muscular band around esophageal and diaphragmatic
function
What is the cause of a rigid abdomen in peritonitis?
o Peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneum. Inflammation and abdominal
spasms
Module 5
What is cryptorchidism and complications associated with the condition?
o Hidden testes, the testes did not descend all the way. Failure to treat this can
cause fibrotic tubules with deficiency in spermatogenesis, infertility.
Clinical manifestations – acute prostatitis-
o Ch31, slide 32- Fever, chills, LBP, frequency, urgency, and dysuria. Tender and
swollen prostate
What is a complication of removing too much fluid during dialysis, and what would
you want to monitor?
o Complication- Low BP
o Monitor- BP, Nausea and dizziness
Clinical manifestations – pyelonephritis (kidney infection)-
o Chills, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, CVA tenderness
o Stretching of renal caps causes pain
Individuals with HPV (human papillomavirus) are at risk for developing what
disease?
o Cervical cancer
Define the following terms: enuresis, stress incontinence, micturition, overflow
incontinence:
o Stress incontinence- small amounts of urine are voided involuntarily with
intraabdominal pressure.
, o Enuresis- intermittent incontinence while asleep (usually in children but not
always).
o Micturition- the act of urinating
o Overflow incontinence- when the bladder becomes so full it leaks urine
A genetic defect in young children with cystitis
o Vesicoureteral reflux
How do kidney tubules maintain a normal pH in response to fever and respiratory
infection?
o They secrete more acids and reabsorb more bicarbonate ions.
Bilateral kidney disease – why does metabolic acidosis occur?
o Tubule exchanges are impaired.
Serum marker ordered when screening for prostate cancer-
o PSA- Prostate-Specific Antigen
Causes of increased glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
o Kidney Disease/Failure
o Diabetes
o High BP
o GFR raised by increased hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillaries (from
Kahoot)
Complication of hydronephrosis-
o Most common is development of UTI and pyelonephritis.
o When the UTI is associated with a high fever, kidney infection is usually
suspected.
Most common cause of pyelonephritis-
o An ascending infection of E.Coli.
Risk factors for developing chronic renal failure-
o Obesity, HTN, age, African American decent, low birth weight, smoking, Type
2 Diabetes.
Functions of the kidney-
o E.E.R
Excretion, Elimination, Regulation
Clinical manifestations of benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH)-
o urinary retention, obstruction to flow, decreased stream, hesitancy (difficulty
initiating a stream), interruption of stream, infection caused by retention
Substance that controls the reabsorption of water from the collecting ducts-
o ADH, Antidiuretic Hormone
Module 6
What is type 2 diabetes characterized as?
o High Blood Glucose levels as a result from impaired insulin utilization,
insulin resistance
Clinical manifestations of Grave’s disease-
o Common cause of hyperthyroidism, enlargement of thyroid- diffuse goiter,
exophthalmos, heat intolerance, anxiety, bulging eyes
, o Dermopathy- thick, red skin on shin & top of feet
What processes occur during fasting?
o Glucose is produced by glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and insulin falls to
basal level
o Glucagon is responsible for most glucose production in fasting state
o Other counterregulatory hormones (corticosteroids, growth hormones,
catecholamines) augment glucose production
This type of tissue is accessed to promote energy production in type I diabetes-
o Adipose Tissues
Clinical manifestations of hyperthyroidism; hypothyroidism; hypoparathyroidism;
hyperparathyroidism-
o HYPERthyroidism- fatigue, weight loss, sensitivity to cold, depression,
memory problems, goiter, hair loss, muscle pain, trembling hands, infertility.
Hyper= grave’s disease.
o HYPOthyroidism- decreased BMR, weakness, fatigue, cold intolerance,
decreased appetite, weight gain, depression, menstrual irregularities, muscle
weakness.
o HYPOparathyroidism- tingling/burning in fingertips, toes, lips, muscle
aches and cramps, twitching/spasms of muscles (esp in the mouth area,
hands, arms, and throat, fatigue, weakness, painful periods.
o HYPERparathyroidism- osteoporosis, kidney stones, excessive urination,
abdominal pain, easily tired, depression/forgetfulness, bone/joint pain.
Clinical manifestations – ketoacidosis
o nausea/vomiting, fatigue, weightless, hunger, thirst, abdomen pain, tired,
increased urination, fruity breath, deep/fast respirations
What mechanisms control hormone release and regulation?
o Trophins from pituitary glands and hypothalamus
What hormones are released by the anterior pituitary gland?
o TSH and ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) – GROWTH HORMONE
Clinical manifestations – diabetes insipidus; Cushing’s syndrome; secondary
hypothyroidism; primary hypothyroidism; primary aldosteronism; secondary
aldosteronism-
o Diabetes insipidus- Too little ADH produced. Extreme polyuria with sudden
onset, increased thirst, weight loss (from water weight), dizzy, weak,
constipation, seizures, tired, disorientation, hypernatremia b/c of H2O
deficit.
Cushing’s- S.T.R.E.S.S.E.D.- S: skin fragile, T: truncal obesity, R: round/mood
face and reproductive issues, E: ecchymosis (easily bruise) and elevated BP, S:
stretch marks on extremities and abdomen (red/purple), S: sugar high-
hyperglycemia, E: excessive body hair, D: dorsocervical fat pad (buffalo
hump) and depression
Secondary Hypothyroid (TSH levels are not functioning properly):
anterior pituitary is not producing enough TSH. defects in TSH production
(Hyposecretion) to not make t3, t4.
Study Guide
Module 4
Clinical manifestations – appendicitis
o Right, lower abdominal pain, nausea, occasional diarrhea
Cause of pseudomembranous colitis and nonpharmacologic treatments-
o (Often called antibiotic associated colitis) Acute inflammation and necrosis of
the large intestine caused by Clostridium difficile. Exposure to antibiotics is
the major factor predisposing to the development of this disorder. Stop the
affecting antibiotic. Treat ischemia, fecal transplant, colectomy
Clinical manifestations – cholecystitis-
o Acute: Inflammation of the gallbladder wall.
o Chronic- inflammation of the gallbladder wall attributed to persistent low-
grade irritation from gallstones or recurrent attacks of acute cholecystitis.
Cause of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)-
o Transmission person to person, fecal-oral route, reservoir in water sources.
H. pylori often causes peptic ulcer disease
Clinical manifestations – gastric carcinoma
o Early- none.
o Advanced- anorexia, weight loss and GI bleed
Causes of gastroenteritis due to Salmonella
o Consumption of raw or undercooked chicken/eggs
o Diarrhea, N/V, abdominal pain
Complication of perforated gallbladder-
o Sepsis.
o Rare complication of acute cholecystitis
Cause of jaundice and disease associated with jaundice-
o Elevated levels of bilirubin
o Caused by a buildup of bilirubin, which is a waste product in blood. An
inflamed liver or obstructed bile duct can cause jaundice. Diseases
associated: infections of the liver from a virus (Hepatitis), overuse to Tylenol.
Define the following terms: dysphagia; occult blood-
o Dysphagia: difficult or painful swallowing
o Occult blood (cause by polyps) blood you can’t see with the naked eye, FOBT
(fecal occult blood test). Means there is usually bleeding somewhere in the
digestive tract.
What should patients with newly diagnosed pancreatitis avoid?
o Alcohol
What causes greenish-yellow emesis?
o Bile, caused by vomiting on an empty stomach, or bile reflux.
Most frequent location of peptic ulcers-
o Proximal Duodenum
What types of hepatitis increase the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma?
, o Hep B and C
Clinical manifestations of chronic gastritis
o Upper abdominal pain
o Indigestion
o Bloating
o N/V
o Weight loss/loss of appetite
o Hematemesis may occur bc of damage to the gastric epithelial mucosa
What types of things put a patient at risk for developing acute gastritis?
o Ingesting irritating substances- alcohol, aspirin, NSAIDs, viral bacteria,
autoimmune
Clinical manifestations of acute gastritis-
o Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and postprandial (after meal) discomfort
Causes of hiatal hernia-
o Conditions where intraabdominal pressure increases: ascites, pregnancy,
obesity, chronic straining or coughing
o Loosening of the muscular band around esophageal and diaphragmatic
function
What is the cause of a rigid abdomen in peritonitis?
o Peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneum. Inflammation and abdominal
spasms
Module 5
What is cryptorchidism and complications associated with the condition?
o Hidden testes, the testes did not descend all the way. Failure to treat this can
cause fibrotic tubules with deficiency in spermatogenesis, infertility.
Clinical manifestations – acute prostatitis-
o Ch31, slide 32- Fever, chills, LBP, frequency, urgency, and dysuria. Tender and
swollen prostate
What is a complication of removing too much fluid during dialysis, and what would
you want to monitor?
o Complication- Low BP
o Monitor- BP, Nausea and dizziness
Clinical manifestations – pyelonephritis (kidney infection)-
o Chills, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, CVA tenderness
o Stretching of renal caps causes pain
Individuals with HPV (human papillomavirus) are at risk for developing what
disease?
o Cervical cancer
Define the following terms: enuresis, stress incontinence, micturition, overflow
incontinence:
o Stress incontinence- small amounts of urine are voided involuntarily with
intraabdominal pressure.
, o Enuresis- intermittent incontinence while asleep (usually in children but not
always).
o Micturition- the act of urinating
o Overflow incontinence- when the bladder becomes so full it leaks urine
A genetic defect in young children with cystitis
o Vesicoureteral reflux
How do kidney tubules maintain a normal pH in response to fever and respiratory
infection?
o They secrete more acids and reabsorb more bicarbonate ions.
Bilateral kidney disease – why does metabolic acidosis occur?
o Tubule exchanges are impaired.
Serum marker ordered when screening for prostate cancer-
o PSA- Prostate-Specific Antigen
Causes of increased glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
o Kidney Disease/Failure
o Diabetes
o High BP
o GFR raised by increased hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillaries (from
Kahoot)
Complication of hydronephrosis-
o Most common is development of UTI and pyelonephritis.
o When the UTI is associated with a high fever, kidney infection is usually
suspected.
Most common cause of pyelonephritis-
o An ascending infection of E.Coli.
Risk factors for developing chronic renal failure-
o Obesity, HTN, age, African American decent, low birth weight, smoking, Type
2 Diabetes.
Functions of the kidney-
o E.E.R
Excretion, Elimination, Regulation
Clinical manifestations of benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH)-
o urinary retention, obstruction to flow, decreased stream, hesitancy (difficulty
initiating a stream), interruption of stream, infection caused by retention
Substance that controls the reabsorption of water from the collecting ducts-
o ADH, Antidiuretic Hormone
Module 6
What is type 2 diabetes characterized as?
o High Blood Glucose levels as a result from impaired insulin utilization,
insulin resistance
Clinical manifestations of Grave’s disease-
o Common cause of hyperthyroidism, enlargement of thyroid- diffuse goiter,
exophthalmos, heat intolerance, anxiety, bulging eyes
, o Dermopathy- thick, red skin on shin & top of feet
What processes occur during fasting?
o Glucose is produced by glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and insulin falls to
basal level
o Glucagon is responsible for most glucose production in fasting state
o Other counterregulatory hormones (corticosteroids, growth hormones,
catecholamines) augment glucose production
This type of tissue is accessed to promote energy production in type I diabetes-
o Adipose Tissues
Clinical manifestations of hyperthyroidism; hypothyroidism; hypoparathyroidism;
hyperparathyroidism-
o HYPERthyroidism- fatigue, weight loss, sensitivity to cold, depression,
memory problems, goiter, hair loss, muscle pain, trembling hands, infertility.
Hyper= grave’s disease.
o HYPOthyroidism- decreased BMR, weakness, fatigue, cold intolerance,
decreased appetite, weight gain, depression, menstrual irregularities, muscle
weakness.
o HYPOparathyroidism- tingling/burning in fingertips, toes, lips, muscle
aches and cramps, twitching/spasms of muscles (esp in the mouth area,
hands, arms, and throat, fatigue, weakness, painful periods.
o HYPERparathyroidism- osteoporosis, kidney stones, excessive urination,
abdominal pain, easily tired, depression/forgetfulness, bone/joint pain.
Clinical manifestations – ketoacidosis
o nausea/vomiting, fatigue, weightless, hunger, thirst, abdomen pain, tired,
increased urination, fruity breath, deep/fast respirations
What mechanisms control hormone release and regulation?
o Trophins from pituitary glands and hypothalamus
What hormones are released by the anterior pituitary gland?
o TSH and ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) – GROWTH HORMONE
Clinical manifestations – diabetes insipidus; Cushing’s syndrome; secondary
hypothyroidism; primary hypothyroidism; primary aldosteronism; secondary
aldosteronism-
o Diabetes insipidus- Too little ADH produced. Extreme polyuria with sudden
onset, increased thirst, weight loss (from water weight), dizzy, weak,
constipation, seizures, tired, disorientation, hypernatremia b/c of H2O
deficit.
Cushing’s- S.T.R.E.S.S.E.D.- S: skin fragile, T: truncal obesity, R: round/mood
face and reproductive issues, E: ecchymosis (easily bruise) and elevated BP, S:
stretch marks on extremities and abdomen (red/purple), S: sugar high-
hyperglycemia, E: excessive body hair, D: dorsocervical fat pad (buffalo
hump) and depression
Secondary Hypothyroid (TSH levels are not functioning properly):
anterior pituitary is not producing enough TSH. defects in TSH production
(Hyposecretion) to not make t3, t4.
