Introduction Psychology
Chapter 1 The science of Psychology
The history of psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes
all our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, and
movement.
The term mental processes refer to all the internal, covert (hidden) activity of our minds,
such as thinking, feeling, and remembering.
Psychology has methods for studying phenomena
1.1 In the beginning: Wundt, Tichener, and James
A relatively new science that formally began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt (”father of
psychology”) established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany
- studied nonphysical structure (can be broken down in thought, experiences,
emotions, etc.) of the human mind.
- used objective introspection to study processes that were the result of physical
sensation
Objective introspection: the process of objectively examining and measuring one’s own
thoughts and mental activities.
- first attempt to bring objectivity and measurement to psychology
Structuralism founded by Edward Titchener (was a student of Wundt’s)
expanded Wundt’s original ideas; believed every experience could be broken down into
individual emotions and sensations.
structuralism the focus of the study was the structure of basic elements of the mind.
Functionalism founded by William James
- influenced by Darwin’s ideas about natural selection—focused on how the mind
allows people to function in the real world. Interested in how behavioral traits could
aid in survival
- influenced development of evolutionary psychology and has elements in
educational psychology and industrial/organizational psychology
He believed that the scientific study of consciousness itself was not yet possible. Instead,
James focused on how the mind allows people to function in the real word.
functionalism early perspective in psychology associated with William James, in which
the focus of study is how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.
,1.2 Three influential approached: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and behaviourism
Gestalt psychology: early perspective in psychology focusing on perception and
sensation, particularly the perception of patterns and whole figures. (Focus on studying
whole patterns rather than small pieces of them).
Gestalt psychology founded by Max Wertheimer did not believe that psychological events
could be broken down into smaller elements; could only be understood as a whole, entire
event; has influenced field of cognitive psychology and a form of psychological therapy,
Gestalt therapy. Wertheimer and others believed that people naturally seek out patterns
(‘wholes’ in the sensory information available to them.
Psychoanalysis: an insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the
revealing of unconscious conflicts; Freud’s term for both the theory of personality and the
therapy based on it.
ideas put forth by Sigmund Freud stressed importance of early life experiences (0-6 year),
the role of the unconscious (with urgers and desires), and development through stages. He
believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created the nervous disorders in
his patients.
Behaviourism: the science of behaviour that focuses on observable behaviour only
Associated with work of John B. Watson, who was greatly influenced by Ivan Pavlov’s work
in conditioning/learning. wanted to bring focus back on scientific inquiry and believed only
way to do so was to focus on observable behavior and ignore “consciousness” issue; early
work examined phobias Pavlov showed that a reflex (an involuntary reaction) could be
caused to occur in response to a formerly unrelated stimulus.
Freud had stated that a phobia =, an irrational fear, is really a symptom of an underlying,
repressed conflict and cannot be cured without years of psychoanalysis to uncover and
understand the repressed material. Freud believed that all behaviour stems form
unconscious motivation, whereas Watson believed that all behaviour is learned.
The field of psychology today
1.3 Modern Perspectives
Cross-cultural research the contrast and comparison of a behaviour or issue are studied in
at least two or more cultures. This type of research can help illustrate the different
influences of environment when compared to the influence of heredity. (for example,
‘bystander effect’ → diffusion of responsibility)
, Perspective Major focus and concepts Major Theorists
Psychodynamic How unconscious processes and early childhood Sigmund Freud, Carl
experiences shape behavior. It focuses on the Gustav, Anna freud
development of sense of self and motivation for
social/interpersonal relationships beyond sexuality.
Behavioral Classical and operant conditioning, concept of Ivan Pavlov, John B.
reinforcement, focus on observable behaviour Watson, F. Skinner
Humanistic The ability of the individual to direct and control his or Abraham Maslow, Carl
her own life, free will, self-actualization Rogers, Natalie Rogers
Cognitive Perception, memory, intelligence, thought Jean Piaget, Noam
processes, problem solving, language, learning, the Chomsky
role of the brand and nervous system.
Cognitive neuroscience studies how brain and
nervous system activity supports these processes,
using imaging methods like fMRI and PET.
Sociocultural Relationship between social behavior and the Lev Vygotsky, John
contexts of family, social groups, and culture Darley
Biopsychological Influences of genetics, hormones, and the activity of Paul Broca, Charles
the nervous system on human and animal behavior Darwin
Evolutionary The biological bases for universal mental David buss, Richard
characteristics that are shared by all humans Dawkins
(biologically shaped mental mechanisms)
Traits like lying, attraction, fear of snakes, and
enjoyment of music are seen as adaptations shaped
by natural selection.
1.4 Psychological professionals and areas of specialization
Psychologists: a professional with an academic (doctor) degree and specialized training in
one or more areas of psychology.
Psychiatrist: medical doctor who specializes in diagnosis and treatment of psychological
disorders; can prescribe medication (medical degree).
Psychiatric social worker: a social worker with special training in the influences of the
environment on mental illness.
Basic research: research focused on adding information to the scientific knowledge base.
Applied research: research focused on finding practical solutions to real word problems.
Scientific research
1.5 Thinking critically about critical thinking
Critical thinking: making reasoned judgements about claims.
The four basic criteria of critical thinking are that there are few concepts that do not need
to be tested, all evidence is not equal in quality, claims by experts and authorities do not
automatically make something true, and keeping an open mind is important.
, (Law of parsimony → the simplest explanation is often the best one)
1.6 The scientific approach
Psychology’s goal aim at uncovering the mysteries of human and animal behavior are:
• description (observation)
• explanation (Theory: a general explanation of a set of observations or facts)
• prediction (when will it happen again, goal: changing or modifying behavior)
• Control (How can it be changed)
Scientific approach: system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are
reduced.
1. Perceiving the question
perceiving the question about some empirical event for which you would like an
explanation; can be derived from the goal of description: What is happening here?
2. Forming a hypothesis
Hypothesis: tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations.
Hypotheses must be falsifiable: there must a way to prove true or false.
A good theory should lead to the formation of hypotheses (predictions based on
theory).
3. Testing the hypothesis
Testing the hypothesis by collecting data, analyzing results. Getting an explanation
for behavior.
4. Drawing conclusions
drawing conclusions about investigation's success or failure to explain event.
Drawing conclusions can be related to the goal of prediction: if your hypothesis
supported, you can make educated guesses about future, similar scenarios.
5. Report your results
Reporting your results; share exactly what, why, and how you did it, which provides
means for replication
Replicate: in research, repeating a study or experiment to see if the same results
will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results.
Empirical questions are those that can be tested through direct observation or experience.
For example has life ever existed on mars?:
Because you can answer through measurement, experiment, soil samples etc. because it
can be supported by or disproved by gathering real evidence
1.7 Descriptive Methods
Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation involves watching people or animals in their normal environment
to obtain a realistic picture of behavior. This method offers high ecological validity but
comes with two main limitations: a lack of control over the setting and observer bias,
Chapter 1 The science of Psychology
The history of psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes
all our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as talking, facial expressions, and
movement.
The term mental processes refer to all the internal, covert (hidden) activity of our minds,
such as thinking, feeling, and remembering.
Psychology has methods for studying phenomena
1.1 In the beginning: Wundt, Tichener, and James
A relatively new science that formally began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt (”father of
psychology”) established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany
- studied nonphysical structure (can be broken down in thought, experiences,
emotions, etc.) of the human mind.
- used objective introspection to study processes that were the result of physical
sensation
Objective introspection: the process of objectively examining and measuring one’s own
thoughts and mental activities.
- first attempt to bring objectivity and measurement to psychology
Structuralism founded by Edward Titchener (was a student of Wundt’s)
expanded Wundt’s original ideas; believed every experience could be broken down into
individual emotions and sensations.
structuralism the focus of the study was the structure of basic elements of the mind.
Functionalism founded by William James
- influenced by Darwin’s ideas about natural selection—focused on how the mind
allows people to function in the real world. Interested in how behavioral traits could
aid in survival
- influenced development of evolutionary psychology and has elements in
educational psychology and industrial/organizational psychology
He believed that the scientific study of consciousness itself was not yet possible. Instead,
James focused on how the mind allows people to function in the real word.
functionalism early perspective in psychology associated with William James, in which
the focus of study is how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.
,1.2 Three influential approached: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and behaviourism
Gestalt psychology: early perspective in psychology focusing on perception and
sensation, particularly the perception of patterns and whole figures. (Focus on studying
whole patterns rather than small pieces of them).
Gestalt psychology founded by Max Wertheimer did not believe that psychological events
could be broken down into smaller elements; could only be understood as a whole, entire
event; has influenced field of cognitive psychology and a form of psychological therapy,
Gestalt therapy. Wertheimer and others believed that people naturally seek out patterns
(‘wholes’ in the sensory information available to them.
Psychoanalysis: an insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the
revealing of unconscious conflicts; Freud’s term for both the theory of personality and the
therapy based on it.
ideas put forth by Sigmund Freud stressed importance of early life experiences (0-6 year),
the role of the unconscious (with urgers and desires), and development through stages. He
believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created the nervous disorders in
his patients.
Behaviourism: the science of behaviour that focuses on observable behaviour only
Associated with work of John B. Watson, who was greatly influenced by Ivan Pavlov’s work
in conditioning/learning. wanted to bring focus back on scientific inquiry and believed only
way to do so was to focus on observable behavior and ignore “consciousness” issue; early
work examined phobias Pavlov showed that a reflex (an involuntary reaction) could be
caused to occur in response to a formerly unrelated stimulus.
Freud had stated that a phobia =, an irrational fear, is really a symptom of an underlying,
repressed conflict and cannot be cured without years of psychoanalysis to uncover and
understand the repressed material. Freud believed that all behaviour stems form
unconscious motivation, whereas Watson believed that all behaviour is learned.
The field of psychology today
1.3 Modern Perspectives
Cross-cultural research the contrast and comparison of a behaviour or issue are studied in
at least two or more cultures. This type of research can help illustrate the different
influences of environment when compared to the influence of heredity. (for example,
‘bystander effect’ → diffusion of responsibility)
, Perspective Major focus and concepts Major Theorists
Psychodynamic How unconscious processes and early childhood Sigmund Freud, Carl
experiences shape behavior. It focuses on the Gustav, Anna freud
development of sense of self and motivation for
social/interpersonal relationships beyond sexuality.
Behavioral Classical and operant conditioning, concept of Ivan Pavlov, John B.
reinforcement, focus on observable behaviour Watson, F. Skinner
Humanistic The ability of the individual to direct and control his or Abraham Maslow, Carl
her own life, free will, self-actualization Rogers, Natalie Rogers
Cognitive Perception, memory, intelligence, thought Jean Piaget, Noam
processes, problem solving, language, learning, the Chomsky
role of the brand and nervous system.
Cognitive neuroscience studies how brain and
nervous system activity supports these processes,
using imaging methods like fMRI and PET.
Sociocultural Relationship between social behavior and the Lev Vygotsky, John
contexts of family, social groups, and culture Darley
Biopsychological Influences of genetics, hormones, and the activity of Paul Broca, Charles
the nervous system on human and animal behavior Darwin
Evolutionary The biological bases for universal mental David buss, Richard
characteristics that are shared by all humans Dawkins
(biologically shaped mental mechanisms)
Traits like lying, attraction, fear of snakes, and
enjoyment of music are seen as adaptations shaped
by natural selection.
1.4 Psychological professionals and areas of specialization
Psychologists: a professional with an academic (doctor) degree and specialized training in
one or more areas of psychology.
Psychiatrist: medical doctor who specializes in diagnosis and treatment of psychological
disorders; can prescribe medication (medical degree).
Psychiatric social worker: a social worker with special training in the influences of the
environment on mental illness.
Basic research: research focused on adding information to the scientific knowledge base.
Applied research: research focused on finding practical solutions to real word problems.
Scientific research
1.5 Thinking critically about critical thinking
Critical thinking: making reasoned judgements about claims.
The four basic criteria of critical thinking are that there are few concepts that do not need
to be tested, all evidence is not equal in quality, claims by experts and authorities do not
automatically make something true, and keeping an open mind is important.
, (Law of parsimony → the simplest explanation is often the best one)
1.6 The scientific approach
Psychology’s goal aim at uncovering the mysteries of human and animal behavior are:
• description (observation)
• explanation (Theory: a general explanation of a set of observations or facts)
• prediction (when will it happen again, goal: changing or modifying behavior)
• Control (How can it be changed)
Scientific approach: system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are
reduced.
1. Perceiving the question
perceiving the question about some empirical event for which you would like an
explanation; can be derived from the goal of description: What is happening here?
2. Forming a hypothesis
Hypothesis: tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations.
Hypotheses must be falsifiable: there must a way to prove true or false.
A good theory should lead to the formation of hypotheses (predictions based on
theory).
3. Testing the hypothesis
Testing the hypothesis by collecting data, analyzing results. Getting an explanation
for behavior.
4. Drawing conclusions
drawing conclusions about investigation's success or failure to explain event.
Drawing conclusions can be related to the goal of prediction: if your hypothesis
supported, you can make educated guesses about future, similar scenarios.
5. Report your results
Reporting your results; share exactly what, why, and how you did it, which provides
means for replication
Replicate: in research, repeating a study or experiment to see if the same results
will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results.
Empirical questions are those that can be tested through direct observation or experience.
For example has life ever existed on mars?:
Because you can answer through measurement, experiment, soil samples etc. because it
can be supported by or disproved by gathering real evidence
1.7 Descriptive Methods
Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation involves watching people or animals in their normal environment
to obtain a realistic picture of behavior. This method offers high ecological validity but
comes with two main limitations: a lack of control over the setting and observer bias,
