French Revolution
The origins and onset of revolution 1774-89
The structure of the ancien regime:
- First estate – clergy – mostly monks and nuns. Lower clergy – poor parish priests.
Higher clergy – very wealthy. Church (third estate paid them Tithe). Exempt from
taxation (direct taxes). Power over the people – in charge of schools, hospitals
and responsible for recording all births, deaths and marriages; censorship of
books, resistance to change
- Second estate – nobility. Most privilege and majority of wealth. Exempt from
paying nearly all direct taxation and some indirect taxes. Exempt from
compulsory military service. Exclusive hunting and fishing rights. Monopolies
granted
- Third estate – mostly peasants. Rural farmers and labourers, urban workers.
Wealthy end of third estate – bourgeoisie. Many lived on and farmed the land of
the nobility under a system of feudalism. Took burden of taxation. Required to
carry out corveé – maintenance of roads.
- Absolute monarchy – God-given, divine right for King to rule with total power.
King the only person to initiate new legislation – the right to arbitrary arrest and
imprisonment through issuing a lettre de cachet. Seen as a symbol of despotism.
King choose small group of ministers to advise him – controller-general being the
most important
- Royal family lived in luxury – Palace of Versailles – finest art, furniture and
decoration, clearly showed their wealth
- Parlements – limits to the King’s power – they could refuse to register and
implement laws created by the King if they felt they were against the traditions
and values of the ancient regime. The king could issue a lit de justice to overrule
them. Members would be important local nobles and higher clergymen, such as
Bishops. They ensured that the populace performed their civic duties and
prosecuted those who did not. Without the support of the Parlements, it would
be very difficult for a monarch to ensure a law was implemented
Enlightenment and philosophers:
- Age of reason – question the conventions of society, promoted use of reason,
logic and evidence as opposed to the reliance on tradition, superstition and
religion, challenged the structure and inequality of the ancien regime.
- Spread of radical ideas – pamphlets and books containing enlightened ideas
would be published, printed and circulated in urban areas – Paris and Lyon, in
many bookshops. Large proportion of the population were literate.
- Censorship and repression – publication of literature was controlled, lists of
banned books, authors could be prosecuted
- Montesquieu – challenged estates system of ancien regime, argued for
estates and feudalism to be abolished, favoured the British model of
government – constitutional monarchy, argued that democracy could lead to
mob rule
, - Voltaire – favourable of the English government, praised English law as it was
more tolerant and liberal, advocate of freedom of expression, critic of the
power of the Catholic church, Republican – wanted a republic equality
- Rousseau – equal rights, believed people should have a say in the laws in
which they live under, everyone has the right to freedom, Republican -
against monarchy
- American Revolution – French soldiers fought on the side of the USA against
British rule. USA saw it as a war against monarchy, tyranny and despotism.
After the war, French soldiers returned having been influenced by the cries
for Republicanism, freedom and equality. Lafayette, a leading French
revolutionary figure was a French General during the American Revolution
Financial crisis:
- Bad harvests – poverty increased, demand for manufactured goods fell –
unemployment increased. 1788 – disastrous harvests – bad winter –
destroyed crops, bread prices increased – bread made up 2/3 of people’s
diets – lead to starvation
- Taxation – clergy and nobility mostly exempt, burden on third estate.
Wealthier estates paid least tax; poor couldn’t afford it so lived in poverty
- Crown debt – Seven Years War – huge debt, France lost valuable overseas
colonies – damaging French economy, Louis XVI inherited these debts. State
spending higher than state income – debt was getting worse
- Corruption at Court – spending of King Louis’ court – overspending. Venality –
buying of titles – offered short-term income for the state – long-term was
detrimental -previous tax-payers from Third Estate were now in Second
Estate and were tax exempt.
- France was verging on bankruptcy – likelihood of revolution increased
Failings of Louis XVI and his ministers:
- Louis’ character – inherited the throne at only 20. He was not destined to be
King, his older brother was heir but died. Thus Louis was not given the
specific training and schooling usually given to the heir to prepare him for
kingship. He was a weak character; indecisive, easily led and lacking in court
and political experience
- Marie Antionette – married Louis young. Her Austrian roots would be a
source of suspicion and distrust; rumoured she manipulated Louis for her
own and Austria’s interests. The couple initially failed to produce an heir
which dented their popularity – they finally did with a daughter in 1778 and
son (heir) in 1781. Spending of royal court was criticised. Nicknamed
‘Madame Deficit’ – extreme lavish spending – Louis accused of failing to rein
her in. Life at Versailles for the couple was increasingly distant from the
poverty of the peasants and Parisian poor
- Turgot: appointed Controller-General in 1774. 1775 he introduced Free Trade
in grain – nobility lost monopolies over it, however prices would remain low;
bad harvests due to bad weather meant grain prices increased – sparked
unrest, flour wars broke out. 1776 he proposed the banning of the corveé,
, the abolition of privileges and the introduction of a property tax payed by all.
The Parlements refused to sanction these reforms. Turgot resigned May
1776.
- Necker: minister in charge of finance after Turgot. Published a record of the
states finances which concealed the states deficit and claimed a surplus of 10
million livres. This won him popular support and made financers more willing
to loan further finances to the state – the state needed money to continue
involvement in the American Revolutionary War without increasing taxes;
however Necker was increasing the state debt. When the truth was later
revealed about the desperate economic situation, the shook and concern was
even greater than it would have been had Necker published it earlier. He
attempted to abolish venal title and the opposition led to Louis forcing
Necker to resign.
- Calonne: appointed controller-general in 1783. Proposed radical reforms –
equal taxation, decrease in government spending, sale of church land.
Assembly of Notables formed to approve the reforms – they were sceptical of
Calonne. He was dismissed in 1787
- Archbishop Brienne: appointed controller-general in 1787. State bankruptcy
in 1788 leads to pressure on Louis to dismiss Brienne. Brienne is dismissed
and Necker is reappointed
- Opposition in the Paris parlement – Brienne attempted to introduce a
universal land tax. In July 1787, the Paris parlement refused to sanction the
introduction of a new tax, arguing that such radical change to the principles
of the ancien regime would require the consent of an Estates-General. Louis
exiled the parlement; he was seen by the nobility to be acting as a tyrant, and
when he tried to impose a rule reducing the legislative power of the
parlements, a series of aristocratic revolts broke out across France, known as
the revolt of the aristocracy. Although the revolts were suppressed, Louis’
reputation had been seriously damaged
- In a further attempt to appease the nobles and to secure finances, louis
agreed to convene a meeting of the Estates-General to discuss the economy
of the state
The summoning of the Estates-General:
- The people of France were sent lists of grievances that they wished to be
discussed at the Estates-General, cahiers de doléances. Each town or region
could submit their complaints and proposals, either by individual estate or
through one combined list
- Louis hoped that the Estates-general would be a meeting to discuss the
state’s finances and allow him to raise new taxes. However, as seen through
the cahiers, the expectations of the role of the estates-General were far
higher and concerned with much more than just taxation. Many were
demanding a new constitution
- The Estates-general met on May 5 1789. Each region and town was
represented by elected members, divided by estate. It was expected
The origins and onset of revolution 1774-89
The structure of the ancien regime:
- First estate – clergy – mostly monks and nuns. Lower clergy – poor parish priests.
Higher clergy – very wealthy. Church (third estate paid them Tithe). Exempt from
taxation (direct taxes). Power over the people – in charge of schools, hospitals
and responsible for recording all births, deaths and marriages; censorship of
books, resistance to change
- Second estate – nobility. Most privilege and majority of wealth. Exempt from
paying nearly all direct taxation and some indirect taxes. Exempt from
compulsory military service. Exclusive hunting and fishing rights. Monopolies
granted
- Third estate – mostly peasants. Rural farmers and labourers, urban workers.
Wealthy end of third estate – bourgeoisie. Many lived on and farmed the land of
the nobility under a system of feudalism. Took burden of taxation. Required to
carry out corveé – maintenance of roads.
- Absolute monarchy – God-given, divine right for King to rule with total power.
King the only person to initiate new legislation – the right to arbitrary arrest and
imprisonment through issuing a lettre de cachet. Seen as a symbol of despotism.
King choose small group of ministers to advise him – controller-general being the
most important
- Royal family lived in luxury – Palace of Versailles – finest art, furniture and
decoration, clearly showed their wealth
- Parlements – limits to the King’s power – they could refuse to register and
implement laws created by the King if they felt they were against the traditions
and values of the ancient regime. The king could issue a lit de justice to overrule
them. Members would be important local nobles and higher clergymen, such as
Bishops. They ensured that the populace performed their civic duties and
prosecuted those who did not. Without the support of the Parlements, it would
be very difficult for a monarch to ensure a law was implemented
Enlightenment and philosophers:
- Age of reason – question the conventions of society, promoted use of reason,
logic and evidence as opposed to the reliance on tradition, superstition and
religion, challenged the structure and inequality of the ancien regime.
- Spread of radical ideas – pamphlets and books containing enlightened ideas
would be published, printed and circulated in urban areas – Paris and Lyon, in
many bookshops. Large proportion of the population were literate.
- Censorship and repression – publication of literature was controlled, lists of
banned books, authors could be prosecuted
- Montesquieu – challenged estates system of ancien regime, argued for
estates and feudalism to be abolished, favoured the British model of
government – constitutional monarchy, argued that democracy could lead to
mob rule
, - Voltaire – favourable of the English government, praised English law as it was
more tolerant and liberal, advocate of freedom of expression, critic of the
power of the Catholic church, Republican – wanted a republic equality
- Rousseau – equal rights, believed people should have a say in the laws in
which they live under, everyone has the right to freedom, Republican -
against monarchy
- American Revolution – French soldiers fought on the side of the USA against
British rule. USA saw it as a war against monarchy, tyranny and despotism.
After the war, French soldiers returned having been influenced by the cries
for Republicanism, freedom and equality. Lafayette, a leading French
revolutionary figure was a French General during the American Revolution
Financial crisis:
- Bad harvests – poverty increased, demand for manufactured goods fell –
unemployment increased. 1788 – disastrous harvests – bad winter –
destroyed crops, bread prices increased – bread made up 2/3 of people’s
diets – lead to starvation
- Taxation – clergy and nobility mostly exempt, burden on third estate.
Wealthier estates paid least tax; poor couldn’t afford it so lived in poverty
- Crown debt – Seven Years War – huge debt, France lost valuable overseas
colonies – damaging French economy, Louis XVI inherited these debts. State
spending higher than state income – debt was getting worse
- Corruption at Court – spending of King Louis’ court – overspending. Venality –
buying of titles – offered short-term income for the state – long-term was
detrimental -previous tax-payers from Third Estate were now in Second
Estate and were tax exempt.
- France was verging on bankruptcy – likelihood of revolution increased
Failings of Louis XVI and his ministers:
- Louis’ character – inherited the throne at only 20. He was not destined to be
King, his older brother was heir but died. Thus Louis was not given the
specific training and schooling usually given to the heir to prepare him for
kingship. He was a weak character; indecisive, easily led and lacking in court
and political experience
- Marie Antionette – married Louis young. Her Austrian roots would be a
source of suspicion and distrust; rumoured she manipulated Louis for her
own and Austria’s interests. The couple initially failed to produce an heir
which dented their popularity – they finally did with a daughter in 1778 and
son (heir) in 1781. Spending of royal court was criticised. Nicknamed
‘Madame Deficit’ – extreme lavish spending – Louis accused of failing to rein
her in. Life at Versailles for the couple was increasingly distant from the
poverty of the peasants and Parisian poor
- Turgot: appointed Controller-General in 1774. 1775 he introduced Free Trade
in grain – nobility lost monopolies over it, however prices would remain low;
bad harvests due to bad weather meant grain prices increased – sparked
unrest, flour wars broke out. 1776 he proposed the banning of the corveé,
, the abolition of privileges and the introduction of a property tax payed by all.
The Parlements refused to sanction these reforms. Turgot resigned May
1776.
- Necker: minister in charge of finance after Turgot. Published a record of the
states finances which concealed the states deficit and claimed a surplus of 10
million livres. This won him popular support and made financers more willing
to loan further finances to the state – the state needed money to continue
involvement in the American Revolutionary War without increasing taxes;
however Necker was increasing the state debt. When the truth was later
revealed about the desperate economic situation, the shook and concern was
even greater than it would have been had Necker published it earlier. He
attempted to abolish venal title and the opposition led to Louis forcing
Necker to resign.
- Calonne: appointed controller-general in 1783. Proposed radical reforms –
equal taxation, decrease in government spending, sale of church land.
Assembly of Notables formed to approve the reforms – they were sceptical of
Calonne. He was dismissed in 1787
- Archbishop Brienne: appointed controller-general in 1787. State bankruptcy
in 1788 leads to pressure on Louis to dismiss Brienne. Brienne is dismissed
and Necker is reappointed
- Opposition in the Paris parlement – Brienne attempted to introduce a
universal land tax. In July 1787, the Paris parlement refused to sanction the
introduction of a new tax, arguing that such radical change to the principles
of the ancien regime would require the consent of an Estates-General. Louis
exiled the parlement; he was seen by the nobility to be acting as a tyrant, and
when he tried to impose a rule reducing the legislative power of the
parlements, a series of aristocratic revolts broke out across France, known as
the revolt of the aristocracy. Although the revolts were suppressed, Louis’
reputation had been seriously damaged
- In a further attempt to appease the nobles and to secure finances, louis
agreed to convene a meeting of the Estates-General to discuss the economy
of the state
The summoning of the Estates-General:
- The people of France were sent lists of grievances that they wished to be
discussed at the Estates-General, cahiers de doléances. Each town or region
could submit their complaints and proposals, either by individual estate or
through one combined list
- Louis hoped that the Estates-general would be a meeting to discuss the
state’s finances and allow him to raise new taxes. However, as seen through
the cahiers, the expectations of the role of the estates-General were far
higher and concerned with much more than just taxation. Many were
demanding a new constitution
- The Estates-general met on May 5 1789. Each region and town was
represented by elected members, divided by estate. It was expected
