1 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
1. Iconology
This chapter is about analysis of visual culture based on the subject matter or content of visual
texts. We can analyze a lot of visual texts on a common-sense level, via the “what-you-see-is-what-
you-get” approach. However, when things get more complicated, this approach doesn’t suffice.
This is when we call to Erwin Panofsky’s iconology: a three-step model to guide us in our analysis.
This model consists of (1) a natural level (the very basic subject matter of the work), (2) a
conventional level (in which we have to know the conventions in use to make sense of what we
see) and (3) the intrinsic level ( which reveals the underlying values of a nation, class, or period –
unconsciously fitted in the work). Lastly, this chapter questions what ‘an image’ actually is.
1.1. Images & subject matter
Introduction to visual culture analysis:
- This chapter focuses on analyzing the content (subject matter) of visual texts
Can be done by using common sense if approached rationally and systematically
- Visual content can often be symbolic even when disguised as ordinary objects
Meanings may be hidden, especially in artworks made hundreds/thousands of years ago
- To analyze such complex works => use: Erwin Panofsky’s iconological method (e.g. northern
renaissance paintings => Beatles album cover)
(John Constable, The Haywain 1821)
1.1.1. Cues inside visual texts
Primitive, but useful method
- Giving structure to primary interpretation of images
- Disciplined ‘dissection’ of unfamiliar images
= > 7 stops to make an informed conclusion (= What You See Is What You Get; WYSIWYG)
1| Genre: What kind of painting is it?
Landscape - Depicts outdoor scenes (rural/urban) à focusing on the environment
- May include people, but the land is the main subject
- Variants: cityscape, seascape
Portrait - Depicts a person (head, bust, full body)
- Variants include: group portraits, mounted portraits, animal portraits, nudes
- Props and backgrounds may offer context
Still life - Shows inanimate objects (e.g. flowers, fruit, household items)
- Everyday subjects: subtypes include floral works or game pieces
,2 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
Genre painting - Scenes from everyday life
- Domestic, unremarkable events (e.g people doing daily chores)
- Not to be confused with ‘genre’ as a general category of painting
2| Identify the subjects (content; theme): What is shown?
- What is shown? (e.g. portrait, landscape, cityscape)
- If a portrait: gender, age, ethnicity, expression, appearance
- Clothing and accessories
Social status, occupation, personality
- Props and setting
Hobbies, profession or identity clues
3| Examine the setting (location; environment): What location is shown?
- Background details: indoor vs outdoor, rural vs urban
- Geographical location: architecture, vegetation and animals
- Use visible elements to place the scene regionally or culturally
4| Era: What timeframe is painted?
E.g. today, 16 th century, belle epoque, early 20 th century
5| Identify the season (timeframe, period): What time of the year is it?
- Seasonal indicators: weather patterns, plant life, activities
- Look for natural cycles: sowing, harvesting, flowering
- Historical awareness of seasonal changes can aid interpretation
6| The time of day (moment in the day; hour): What time of the day is it?
- Position of the sun: light and shadows
- Color tones (e.g warm morning/evening light)
- Human behavior and dress (e.g workwear, nightlife)
7| Movement (instance; event): What particular moment is depicted?
- Paintings often capture a single, chosen instant
- Look for movement, emotion, weather changes
- Ask: What happened just before or after this moment?
= > This method matters => easy to apply methodology:
- Active looking
- Visual evidence first
Focuses on what the painting shows, not external materials
- Transferable skills
Offers a general method usable across many artworks
- Empowers the viewer
Builds confidence in personal interpretation
! Limits of ‘what you see’ approach
- Visual analysis may seem simple, but interpretation is often complex
- Role of common sense and cultural knowledge
Understanding images depends on shared common sense frameworks
(e.g. agricultural, religious, or social contexts)
- Codes, conventions & canon
Images follow established traditions and symbolic systems that guide meaning
- Meaning goes beyond what is seen
The ‘meaning’ of an image often refers to something external to it.
Context, culture, and prior knowledge are essential for full understanding
,3 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
1.2. Erwin Panofsky & iconology
1.2.1. Disguised symbolism
Disguised symbolism: everyday things can have a realistic, as well as a symbolic existence
Understanding Symbolism in Art:
Depicted objects have They possess both a realistic existence (everyday, visible form), and a
deeper meaning symbolic existence (hidden, cultural or spiritual meaning)
‘Full’ meaning of an Objects and colors often carry conventional meanings
image goes beyond - E.g. dogs = loyalty; bleu = purity/status; …
what you see Their cultural significance depends on shared social and religious codes
Arnolfini Wedding Portrait (Van Eyck, 1434)
To fully understand this painting, one needs:
- Basic knowledge of medieval painting techniques
- Familiarity with Christian theology and symbolism
o You could look these up in code books
- Awareness of medieval social customs and gender roles
! Limits of the “What You See Is What You Get”-approach (‘7 stops’)
- Visual interpretation cannot rely solely on surface appearance
- Images are created for a knowledgeable audience, and they reflect the social and cultural
logics of their time
Iconology (= iconography): method that helps us to study the subject-matter of works of art at each
of the levels we have just been discussing
1.2.2. Erwin Panofsky
Seminal work: Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (1939)
=> Presents us with a structured, progressive and logical system for ideological analysis that we can
use for ourselves and on images of our own choice
,4 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
Key arguments:
- Renaissance art reflects a belief in human potential and dignity
A humanistic worldview
- Naturalism and perspective emphasize individuality and the human experience
- Art shows a hybridization between Christian and mythological themes, aiming to reconcile
classical wisdom with Catholic tradition
- To decode meaning, Panofsky proposed a three-tiered method
A structured approach to understanding the visible, symbolic and cultural dimensions of art
Iconology as the branch of art history which ‘concerns itself with the subject matter/meaning of
works of art’
1.2.3. Panofsky’s iconology
= > 3 levels/strata of meaning
Primary Pre-iconographical:
level - Factual: Focuses on what is factually and expressively visible – basic subject
matter and mood
= natural level - Expressional: Requires only everyday experience (no cultural or historical
knowledge)
“What you see is what you get”
E.g. use of graphical perspective in painting
Secondary Iconographical: where the real work of iconology begins
level - Conventional: Involves recognizing symbols, codes, and conventions known
to the period
= conventional - Social: Depends on social, literary, and theological knowledge (e.g. saints’
level attributes, mythological references)
E.g. visual art perceived as a domain of scientific experiment
Tertiary level Iconological:
- Cultural: Reveals the cultural, historical, and philosophical context behind
= intrinsic the image
meaning or - Historical: Exposes unconscious values – beliefs about class, gender,
content
religion, or power structures
E.g. Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait reflects 15th century Flemish views on marriage, faith, and
status
E.g. Art as expressing a broad shift towards premodern motions of society
Overall - Iconology provides a method to read art as a cultural text, not just a visual
significance object
- It connects form and content to the worldview of its creators and audience
Showing how art embodies the social and intellectual spirit of its time
Goal of Reaching the tertiary level of meaning:
iconology - From what images depict to why this makes sense in their context of origin
o Tertiary level is the outcome of unconscious processes
o Beyond the deliberate/intended meaning of the image
E.g. ‘A man walks down the street and raises his hat in greeting;
1) Primary level:
,5 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
o Factually: a man has briefly lifted his hat from his head and then replaced it
o Expressionally: we can sense that this is a friendly gesture
We can understand what happened from our experience of everyday life
2) Secondary level:
o We understand that it means/stands for something more than a simple practical action
o Form of communication that we understand (sign of politeness)
We have to know previously what the action means in order to understand what is being
communicated
3) Tertiary level:
o We can tell something of the man’s personality + his national, social, educational, and cultural
background
o He may not deliberately have intended to reveal so much about himself in that single gesture
The Last Supper – detail (Da Vinci, ca. 1492-1498)
Too much focus on intentions/deliberateness (i.e. secondary level)
invites conspiratorial rhetoric
- The point of iconological analysis is always to make sense
of the broader context
- Claims about intentions/hidden clues are often beyond
empirical verification
Abbey Road cover (Macmillan, 1969)
Primary level: factual, expressional, …
- Use of practical experience of daily life
o What is shown? (//factual level) – 4 men,
pedestrian crossing, cars, trees
o What does this communicate? (// expressional
level) – 4 men casually crossing a quiet city road
Secondary level: conventional, social, …
- Use of existing literacy, artistic & cultural knowledge to interpret image
o Whom is shown? – The Beatles (John Lennon, Ringo Starr, Paul McCartney & George
Harrison)
o What is meant? – a funeral procession?
▪ Paul McCartney walking barefoot alone, out of step and smoking
▪ Priest – pallbearer – late McCartney – gravedigger ?
▪ License plate 28IF
▪ …
Tertiary level: cultural, historical, …
- Use of iconological analysis to place image in broader socio-cultural context
o Lack of conformity & celebration of individuality
o Artistic vision over commercial trickery
o No band name featured on cover
Iconological ‘way of looking’ remains a key component of visual literacy
! Not only applicable to late Medieval & Renaissance art
,6 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
- Useful and often-employed strategy to decipher visual texts’ subject matter
- Aligned with methods like content analysis, film analysis, and text analysis
1.3. What do we mean when we say ‘image’?
1.3.1. Images & representation
‘Transparency’ of the image is no longer accepted
- ‘Representing’ reality rather than ‘reflecting’ it
o Deceptive appearance of naturalness => artwork created from a certain standpoint
=> ideologically charged
- Images/visual texts as one system of signs among others
o E.g. written words; music; haptic stimuli; …)
Recognizing the image as a ‘system of signs’ calls into question what ‘image’ refers to
- ‘Graphical portrayal’? ‘Mental picture’? ‘Optical image’?
- Il/legitimate usage dependent on context
1.3.2. W.J. Mitchell focuses on the idea of imagery itself
As the modern notion that images are ‘transparent windows on the world’ disappeared,
they became increasingly regarded as ‘the sort of sign that presents distorting, arbitrary
mechanism of representation, a process of ideological mystification’
‘War of signs’: each type of art assumes that its particular kind of signs provide better
symbolic equipment to mediate certain things
The task of the iconologist is to uncover the ways in which the notion of ideology re-enacts the
ancient struggle over the place of images in the stories we tell ourselves about our own evolution
from creatures “made in the image” of a creator, to creatures who make themselves and their world
in their own image
Visual culture and imagery understood by dichotomies
- ‘Visual image’ (objective) ↔ ‘mental image’ (subjective)
- ‘Written word’ (convention) ↔ ‘visual representation’ (imitation)
Dichotomies (and implicit hierarchies) fail to address the complexities of perception
Images & visual culture mobilize the ‘perceptual realm’ – images are never fully
‘Outside’ A visual image is never solely dependent on material reality
E.g. a photograph
‘Inside’ A mental image cannot exist only as immaterial
E.g. a dream
Every visual text exists at the interface between material and mental processes
,7 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
Distinguishing between ‘words’ and ‘images’ troubled as a result
- Words and images are obviously different from one another
- But the difference is not stable/transhistorical
o E.g. hieroglyphs; emoticons
“The relation between words and images opens a space of intellectual struggle, historical
investigation and artistic/cultural practice”
2. Form: How does an image speak?
This chapter is about form: not what is being shown, but the manner in which it is depicted. In
some cases, form is more important than content. This is especially true for modern art. To develop
this argument, we turn to Roger Fry to explain the use of form in the communication of emotion.
He will provide a five-point system for the analysis of form. This chapter thus forms a
counterargument to the previous one.
Different formal aspects of images, how these specific esthetic traits of images convey a certain
meaning. The content of an image gives us information
- The formal qualities that we find in this image also give us a lot of information as to how to
interpret this
- Formal choices are meaningful for our interpretation of the image
2.1. Content & form
Nr. 32 (Pollock, 1950) - Content? Splashes
- Subject matter? Not much but splashes, but you can tell that it’s
an expression of emotions
- Meaning?
Emotional response, but plenty of room for interpretation
We need analyses that are separate from iconology to interpret
Looking for how these works communicate something to us
Does it make it meaningless since it is not obvious? We need other
tools to search for the meaning
For Panofsky: content = meaning
- ↔ Fry: There has to be more to art than the imitation of reality
Visual text’s meaning is not restricted to content/subject matter alone
- Form is a signifier in its own right (e.g. CCTV footage)
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o E.g. Night vision imagery => has content, but it says something. Cant see a lot, but
you know that is was filmed during the night
- Appreciation of images often depends more on form than on content (e.g. DCP versus
pellicule)
= > Form as a language: it creates meaning (the form in which it’s represented also has meaning)
- The expressive use of splashed point and just simply chucking it on a canvas, says something,
even though the painting is not about something in particular
o Form, formal qualities, form as a language are a signifier in their own right
o Form creates meaning independent of the contents of an image
- The form in which things are being represented sort of conveys an extra layer of meaning to
the piece
- People’s appreciation of visual culture is also dependent on form rather than content alone
o If you are into cinema, you’ll prefer analog cinema above digital prints (look and feel,
experience)
2.1.1. Formal clues
The Bathers (Paul Cézanne, 1894-1905) The tools we’ve got from iconology aren’t enough to interpret this
image…
What kind of resources do we need to engage this work?
- Religious/mythological knowledge?
- Art historical insights?
- Details about the artist’s life?
Content (naked people); subject matter (leisure time): you dont need
any insider information
Artistic/historical knowledge helps, but is not strictly needed to appreciate The Bathers
- Composition & balance
o A lot of naked people
o They are together & stick to each other => community
- Light & shadow
o Expressive element, it substitutes the line work
o Softens the image into 1 organic mass
- Colour
o Not realistic => bring a vibe of what is happening there
- …
,9 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
2.2. Roger Fry & 5 ‘emotional elements of design’
2.2.1. Roger Fry
Background - 1866-1934: King’s College, Cambridge
- Born into a traditional Quaker family
- Studied Natural Sciences at King’s College (Cambridge)
Shift in Scientific studies (natural sciences) => visual arts, philosophy and
interests aesthetics
Career path Initially focused on classical painting and the Italian Old Masters
- From studying and collecting realist Renaissance art to promoting Post-
Impressionism (people called him crazy)
- Believed art should express form, emotion, and design, not merely imitate
reality
- Public turned against him:
o More political than he imagined!
o One had to be a member of the educated elite, in order to
understand classical painting (required a certain cultural repertoire)
o Art = social asset that gave the elite a social standing
- Post-impressionism:
o No ‘hidden meanings’
o Direct experience of the artwork
= democratization of art
Influence - Curator, critic, and writer who helped redefine modern art appreciation
- Advocated that meaning in art can exist beyond recognizable subject matter
In form, color, and composition
! TODAY: It doesn’t seem too crazy that someone changes to contemporary painting
! THEN: This was a scandal; there was a big gap between art history as an academic practice and art
theory as it was being conducted by the radical avant garde so to speak
“If imitation is the sole purpose of the graphic arts, it is surprising that the works of such arts are ever
looked upon as more than curiosities or ingenious toys”
People have 2 kinds of life (difference between walking down the street or catching a train, and
watching a film of a similar event)
Actual life Concerned with the humdrum detail of everyday experience
Imaginative life = > Work of art is intimately connected with this
- Forms the completest expression of human nature
- One is able to see the event more clearly (engaged in the drama vs
watching it on screen)
- One doesn’t have to react to everything one saw; one reacts in one’s
imagination
- Graphic arts: the expression of the imaginative life rather than a copy of
actual life
, 10 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
“We must therefore give up the attempt to judge the work of art by its reaction on life and consider it
as an expression of emotions regarded as ends in themselves”
- The imaginative life is distinguished by the greater clearness of perception and the greater
purity and freedom of its emotion
- Art as the medium through which this higher state could be attained
- The work of art communicates, not by what it shows, but by how it shows it
Defining the ‘purpose’ of art beyond the imitation of nature:
- Art as an expression of imaginative life, not as a copy of actual life
o “stupid to reduce the goal of art to imitate nature”
o Linked to our own experiences as humans: we think about stuff, and imagine things
o The real life is what everyone has to deal with; with art we disintegrate ourselves
from the real world
- Appreciating art is not about the imitation of nature, but about the emotions expressed
o It’s no longer the reflection of our perception, art raises fundamental contemplations
(the emotions expressed by the artworks
- We appreciate images now (this artwork isn’t made as a
conviction of nature)
- The water isn’t natural (doesn’t want to convince us that it
depicts reality)
It’s not about how realistic it is, but we are asked which emotions
are brought up and painted down
Aha oe Feii? (Gauguin, 1892) Creation of a certain emotion by choice of colors & lines
Seminal exposition: Manet and the Post-Impressionists (1910)
- Works by (now) canonical painters: Manet, Matisse, Gauguin, Van Gogh, …
o Radical painters; stray away from the bourgeoisie-society
- But then a scandalous affair, condemned by the British public
o Paintings used to require some knowledge to comprehend the piece
o If you think of Van Gogh’s chair (1888), you don’t need much background information
to get it; we can experience it immediately
- Post-impressionism could be appreciated without pre-existing artistic/cultural knowledge
o No ‘hidden meanings’ (↔ iconology)
o Direct ‘experience’ of the artwork
- = ‘Democratization’ of art
o Not only highly educated people, but also the lower class could enjoy art
A visual language that doesn’t require a pre-existing knowledge. Place in our own imaginative life;
- Then: ‘Radical idea’
1. Iconology
This chapter is about analysis of visual culture based on the subject matter or content of visual
texts. We can analyze a lot of visual texts on a common-sense level, via the “what-you-see-is-what-
you-get” approach. However, when things get more complicated, this approach doesn’t suffice.
This is when we call to Erwin Panofsky’s iconology: a three-step model to guide us in our analysis.
This model consists of (1) a natural level (the very basic subject matter of the work), (2) a
conventional level (in which we have to know the conventions in use to make sense of what we
see) and (3) the intrinsic level ( which reveals the underlying values of a nation, class, or period –
unconsciously fitted in the work). Lastly, this chapter questions what ‘an image’ actually is.
1.1. Images & subject matter
Introduction to visual culture analysis:
- This chapter focuses on analyzing the content (subject matter) of visual texts
Can be done by using common sense if approached rationally and systematically
- Visual content can often be symbolic even when disguised as ordinary objects
Meanings may be hidden, especially in artworks made hundreds/thousands of years ago
- To analyze such complex works => use: Erwin Panofsky’s iconological method (e.g. northern
renaissance paintings => Beatles album cover)
(John Constable, The Haywain 1821)
1.1.1. Cues inside visual texts
Primitive, but useful method
- Giving structure to primary interpretation of images
- Disciplined ‘dissection’ of unfamiliar images
= > 7 stops to make an informed conclusion (= What You See Is What You Get; WYSIWYG)
1| Genre: What kind of painting is it?
Landscape - Depicts outdoor scenes (rural/urban) à focusing on the environment
- May include people, but the land is the main subject
- Variants: cityscape, seascape
Portrait - Depicts a person (head, bust, full body)
- Variants include: group portraits, mounted portraits, animal portraits, nudes
- Props and backgrounds may offer context
Still life - Shows inanimate objects (e.g. flowers, fruit, household items)
- Everyday subjects: subtypes include floral works or game pieces
,2 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
Genre painting - Scenes from everyday life
- Domestic, unremarkable events (e.g people doing daily chores)
- Not to be confused with ‘genre’ as a general category of painting
2| Identify the subjects (content; theme): What is shown?
- What is shown? (e.g. portrait, landscape, cityscape)
- If a portrait: gender, age, ethnicity, expression, appearance
- Clothing and accessories
Social status, occupation, personality
- Props and setting
Hobbies, profession or identity clues
3| Examine the setting (location; environment): What location is shown?
- Background details: indoor vs outdoor, rural vs urban
- Geographical location: architecture, vegetation and animals
- Use visible elements to place the scene regionally or culturally
4| Era: What timeframe is painted?
E.g. today, 16 th century, belle epoque, early 20 th century
5| Identify the season (timeframe, period): What time of the year is it?
- Seasonal indicators: weather patterns, plant life, activities
- Look for natural cycles: sowing, harvesting, flowering
- Historical awareness of seasonal changes can aid interpretation
6| The time of day (moment in the day; hour): What time of the day is it?
- Position of the sun: light and shadows
- Color tones (e.g warm morning/evening light)
- Human behavior and dress (e.g workwear, nightlife)
7| Movement (instance; event): What particular moment is depicted?
- Paintings often capture a single, chosen instant
- Look for movement, emotion, weather changes
- Ask: What happened just before or after this moment?
= > This method matters => easy to apply methodology:
- Active looking
- Visual evidence first
Focuses on what the painting shows, not external materials
- Transferable skills
Offers a general method usable across many artworks
- Empowers the viewer
Builds confidence in personal interpretation
! Limits of ‘what you see’ approach
- Visual analysis may seem simple, but interpretation is often complex
- Role of common sense and cultural knowledge
Understanding images depends on shared common sense frameworks
(e.g. agricultural, religious, or social contexts)
- Codes, conventions & canon
Images follow established traditions and symbolic systems that guide meaning
- Meaning goes beyond what is seen
The ‘meaning’ of an image often refers to something external to it.
Context, culture, and prior knowledge are essential for full understanding
,3 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
1.2. Erwin Panofsky & iconology
1.2.1. Disguised symbolism
Disguised symbolism: everyday things can have a realistic, as well as a symbolic existence
Understanding Symbolism in Art:
Depicted objects have They possess both a realistic existence (everyday, visible form), and a
deeper meaning symbolic existence (hidden, cultural or spiritual meaning)
‘Full’ meaning of an Objects and colors often carry conventional meanings
image goes beyond - E.g. dogs = loyalty; bleu = purity/status; …
what you see Their cultural significance depends on shared social and religious codes
Arnolfini Wedding Portrait (Van Eyck, 1434)
To fully understand this painting, one needs:
- Basic knowledge of medieval painting techniques
- Familiarity with Christian theology and symbolism
o You could look these up in code books
- Awareness of medieval social customs and gender roles
! Limits of the “What You See Is What You Get”-approach (‘7 stops’)
- Visual interpretation cannot rely solely on surface appearance
- Images are created for a knowledgeable audience, and they reflect the social and cultural
logics of their time
Iconology (= iconography): method that helps us to study the subject-matter of works of art at each
of the levels we have just been discussing
1.2.2. Erwin Panofsky
Seminal work: Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance (1939)
=> Presents us with a structured, progressive and logical system for ideological analysis that we can
use for ourselves and on images of our own choice
,4 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
Key arguments:
- Renaissance art reflects a belief in human potential and dignity
A humanistic worldview
- Naturalism and perspective emphasize individuality and the human experience
- Art shows a hybridization between Christian and mythological themes, aiming to reconcile
classical wisdom with Catholic tradition
- To decode meaning, Panofsky proposed a three-tiered method
A structured approach to understanding the visible, symbolic and cultural dimensions of art
Iconology as the branch of art history which ‘concerns itself with the subject matter/meaning of
works of art’
1.2.3. Panofsky’s iconology
= > 3 levels/strata of meaning
Primary Pre-iconographical:
level - Factual: Focuses on what is factually and expressively visible – basic subject
matter and mood
= natural level - Expressional: Requires only everyday experience (no cultural or historical
knowledge)
“What you see is what you get”
E.g. use of graphical perspective in painting
Secondary Iconographical: where the real work of iconology begins
level - Conventional: Involves recognizing symbols, codes, and conventions known
to the period
= conventional - Social: Depends on social, literary, and theological knowledge (e.g. saints’
level attributes, mythological references)
E.g. visual art perceived as a domain of scientific experiment
Tertiary level Iconological:
- Cultural: Reveals the cultural, historical, and philosophical context behind
= intrinsic the image
meaning or - Historical: Exposes unconscious values – beliefs about class, gender,
content
religion, or power structures
E.g. Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait reflects 15th century Flemish views on marriage, faith, and
status
E.g. Art as expressing a broad shift towards premodern motions of society
Overall - Iconology provides a method to read art as a cultural text, not just a visual
significance object
- It connects form and content to the worldview of its creators and audience
Showing how art embodies the social and intellectual spirit of its time
Goal of Reaching the tertiary level of meaning:
iconology - From what images depict to why this makes sense in their context of origin
o Tertiary level is the outcome of unconscious processes
o Beyond the deliberate/intended meaning of the image
E.g. ‘A man walks down the street and raises his hat in greeting;
1) Primary level:
,5 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
o Factually: a man has briefly lifted his hat from his head and then replaced it
o Expressionally: we can sense that this is a friendly gesture
We can understand what happened from our experience of everyday life
2) Secondary level:
o We understand that it means/stands for something more than a simple practical action
o Form of communication that we understand (sign of politeness)
We have to know previously what the action means in order to understand what is being
communicated
3) Tertiary level:
o We can tell something of the man’s personality + his national, social, educational, and cultural
background
o He may not deliberately have intended to reveal so much about himself in that single gesture
The Last Supper – detail (Da Vinci, ca. 1492-1498)
Too much focus on intentions/deliberateness (i.e. secondary level)
invites conspiratorial rhetoric
- The point of iconological analysis is always to make sense
of the broader context
- Claims about intentions/hidden clues are often beyond
empirical verification
Abbey Road cover (Macmillan, 1969)
Primary level: factual, expressional, …
- Use of practical experience of daily life
o What is shown? (//factual level) – 4 men,
pedestrian crossing, cars, trees
o What does this communicate? (// expressional
level) – 4 men casually crossing a quiet city road
Secondary level: conventional, social, …
- Use of existing literacy, artistic & cultural knowledge to interpret image
o Whom is shown? – The Beatles (John Lennon, Ringo Starr, Paul McCartney & George
Harrison)
o What is meant? – a funeral procession?
▪ Paul McCartney walking barefoot alone, out of step and smoking
▪ Priest – pallbearer – late McCartney – gravedigger ?
▪ License plate 28IF
▪ …
Tertiary level: cultural, historical, …
- Use of iconological analysis to place image in broader socio-cultural context
o Lack of conformity & celebration of individuality
o Artistic vision over commercial trickery
o No band name featured on cover
Iconological ‘way of looking’ remains a key component of visual literacy
! Not only applicable to late Medieval & Renaissance art
,6 VISUAL CULTURE 2025 | Camille V.
- Useful and often-employed strategy to decipher visual texts’ subject matter
- Aligned with methods like content analysis, film analysis, and text analysis
1.3. What do we mean when we say ‘image’?
1.3.1. Images & representation
‘Transparency’ of the image is no longer accepted
- ‘Representing’ reality rather than ‘reflecting’ it
o Deceptive appearance of naturalness => artwork created from a certain standpoint
=> ideologically charged
- Images/visual texts as one system of signs among others
o E.g. written words; music; haptic stimuli; …)
Recognizing the image as a ‘system of signs’ calls into question what ‘image’ refers to
- ‘Graphical portrayal’? ‘Mental picture’? ‘Optical image’?
- Il/legitimate usage dependent on context
1.3.2. W.J. Mitchell focuses on the idea of imagery itself
As the modern notion that images are ‘transparent windows on the world’ disappeared,
they became increasingly regarded as ‘the sort of sign that presents distorting, arbitrary
mechanism of representation, a process of ideological mystification’
‘War of signs’: each type of art assumes that its particular kind of signs provide better
symbolic equipment to mediate certain things
The task of the iconologist is to uncover the ways in which the notion of ideology re-enacts the
ancient struggle over the place of images in the stories we tell ourselves about our own evolution
from creatures “made in the image” of a creator, to creatures who make themselves and their world
in their own image
Visual culture and imagery understood by dichotomies
- ‘Visual image’ (objective) ↔ ‘mental image’ (subjective)
- ‘Written word’ (convention) ↔ ‘visual representation’ (imitation)
Dichotomies (and implicit hierarchies) fail to address the complexities of perception
Images & visual culture mobilize the ‘perceptual realm’ – images are never fully
‘Outside’ A visual image is never solely dependent on material reality
E.g. a photograph
‘Inside’ A mental image cannot exist only as immaterial
E.g. a dream
Every visual text exists at the interface between material and mental processes
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Distinguishing between ‘words’ and ‘images’ troubled as a result
- Words and images are obviously different from one another
- But the difference is not stable/transhistorical
o E.g. hieroglyphs; emoticons
“The relation between words and images opens a space of intellectual struggle, historical
investigation and artistic/cultural practice”
2. Form: How does an image speak?
This chapter is about form: not what is being shown, but the manner in which it is depicted. In
some cases, form is more important than content. This is especially true for modern art. To develop
this argument, we turn to Roger Fry to explain the use of form in the communication of emotion.
He will provide a five-point system for the analysis of form. This chapter thus forms a
counterargument to the previous one.
Different formal aspects of images, how these specific esthetic traits of images convey a certain
meaning. The content of an image gives us information
- The formal qualities that we find in this image also give us a lot of information as to how to
interpret this
- Formal choices are meaningful for our interpretation of the image
2.1. Content & form
Nr. 32 (Pollock, 1950) - Content? Splashes
- Subject matter? Not much but splashes, but you can tell that it’s
an expression of emotions
- Meaning?
Emotional response, but plenty of room for interpretation
We need analyses that are separate from iconology to interpret
Looking for how these works communicate something to us
Does it make it meaningless since it is not obvious? We need other
tools to search for the meaning
For Panofsky: content = meaning
- ↔ Fry: There has to be more to art than the imitation of reality
Visual text’s meaning is not restricted to content/subject matter alone
- Form is a signifier in its own right (e.g. CCTV footage)
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o E.g. Night vision imagery => has content, but it says something. Cant see a lot, but
you know that is was filmed during the night
- Appreciation of images often depends more on form than on content (e.g. DCP versus
pellicule)
= > Form as a language: it creates meaning (the form in which it’s represented also has meaning)
- The expressive use of splashed point and just simply chucking it on a canvas, says something,
even though the painting is not about something in particular
o Form, formal qualities, form as a language are a signifier in their own right
o Form creates meaning independent of the contents of an image
- The form in which things are being represented sort of conveys an extra layer of meaning to
the piece
- People’s appreciation of visual culture is also dependent on form rather than content alone
o If you are into cinema, you’ll prefer analog cinema above digital prints (look and feel,
experience)
2.1.1. Formal clues
The Bathers (Paul Cézanne, 1894-1905) The tools we’ve got from iconology aren’t enough to interpret this
image…
What kind of resources do we need to engage this work?
- Religious/mythological knowledge?
- Art historical insights?
- Details about the artist’s life?
Content (naked people); subject matter (leisure time): you dont need
any insider information
Artistic/historical knowledge helps, but is not strictly needed to appreciate The Bathers
- Composition & balance
o A lot of naked people
o They are together & stick to each other => community
- Light & shadow
o Expressive element, it substitutes the line work
o Softens the image into 1 organic mass
- Colour
o Not realistic => bring a vibe of what is happening there
- …
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2.2. Roger Fry & 5 ‘emotional elements of design’
2.2.1. Roger Fry
Background - 1866-1934: King’s College, Cambridge
- Born into a traditional Quaker family
- Studied Natural Sciences at King’s College (Cambridge)
Shift in Scientific studies (natural sciences) => visual arts, philosophy and
interests aesthetics
Career path Initially focused on classical painting and the Italian Old Masters
- From studying and collecting realist Renaissance art to promoting Post-
Impressionism (people called him crazy)
- Believed art should express form, emotion, and design, not merely imitate
reality
- Public turned against him:
o More political than he imagined!
o One had to be a member of the educated elite, in order to
understand classical painting (required a certain cultural repertoire)
o Art = social asset that gave the elite a social standing
- Post-impressionism:
o No ‘hidden meanings’
o Direct experience of the artwork
= democratization of art
Influence - Curator, critic, and writer who helped redefine modern art appreciation
- Advocated that meaning in art can exist beyond recognizable subject matter
In form, color, and composition
! TODAY: It doesn’t seem too crazy that someone changes to contemporary painting
! THEN: This was a scandal; there was a big gap between art history as an academic practice and art
theory as it was being conducted by the radical avant garde so to speak
“If imitation is the sole purpose of the graphic arts, it is surprising that the works of such arts are ever
looked upon as more than curiosities or ingenious toys”
People have 2 kinds of life (difference between walking down the street or catching a train, and
watching a film of a similar event)
Actual life Concerned with the humdrum detail of everyday experience
Imaginative life = > Work of art is intimately connected with this
- Forms the completest expression of human nature
- One is able to see the event more clearly (engaged in the drama vs
watching it on screen)
- One doesn’t have to react to everything one saw; one reacts in one’s
imagination
- Graphic arts: the expression of the imaginative life rather than a copy of
actual life
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“We must therefore give up the attempt to judge the work of art by its reaction on life and consider it
as an expression of emotions regarded as ends in themselves”
- The imaginative life is distinguished by the greater clearness of perception and the greater
purity and freedom of its emotion
- Art as the medium through which this higher state could be attained
- The work of art communicates, not by what it shows, but by how it shows it
Defining the ‘purpose’ of art beyond the imitation of nature:
- Art as an expression of imaginative life, not as a copy of actual life
o “stupid to reduce the goal of art to imitate nature”
o Linked to our own experiences as humans: we think about stuff, and imagine things
o The real life is what everyone has to deal with; with art we disintegrate ourselves
from the real world
- Appreciating art is not about the imitation of nature, but about the emotions expressed
o It’s no longer the reflection of our perception, art raises fundamental contemplations
(the emotions expressed by the artworks
- We appreciate images now (this artwork isn’t made as a
conviction of nature)
- The water isn’t natural (doesn’t want to convince us that it
depicts reality)
It’s not about how realistic it is, but we are asked which emotions
are brought up and painted down
Aha oe Feii? (Gauguin, 1892) Creation of a certain emotion by choice of colors & lines
Seminal exposition: Manet and the Post-Impressionists (1910)
- Works by (now) canonical painters: Manet, Matisse, Gauguin, Van Gogh, …
o Radical painters; stray away from the bourgeoisie-society
- But then a scandalous affair, condemned by the British public
o Paintings used to require some knowledge to comprehend the piece
o If you think of Van Gogh’s chair (1888), you don’t need much background information
to get it; we can experience it immediately
- Post-impressionism could be appreciated without pre-existing artistic/cultural knowledge
o No ‘hidden meanings’ (↔ iconology)
o Direct ‘experience’ of the artwork
- = ‘Democratization’ of art
o Not only highly educated people, but also the lower class could enjoy art
A visual language that doesn’t require a pre-existing knowledge. Place in our own imaginative life;
- Then: ‘Radical idea’
