1
Communalism
Introduction
Communalism is one of the most serious social problems in India. It refers to the use of
religion as a basis for political mobilization, creating conflict between different religious
communities. It is not merely religious sentiment or devotion — it is the transformation of
religious identity into a political tool that promotes hostility between groups. India, being a
multi-religious society with Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and others, has been deeply
affected by communal tensions since the colonial period. Communalism has led to riots,
mass violence, displacement, and even the partition of the country in 1947.
Definition
Bipan Chandra — "Communalism is the belief that because people follow different religions,
they have different, mutually incompatible secular interests — social, economic and political
— and that therefore religious communities must be organized as political units in
opposition to each other."
Donald Eugene Smith — defined it as the politicization of religion, where religion moves
from the private sphere into public and political life.
In simple terms, communalism means loyalty to one's own religious community to the point
of developing hostility toward other religious communities, especially in political and social
life.
Evolution of Communalism in India
1. Pre-Colonial Period
• Religious differences existed but were not politically organized in the modern
communal sense.
• Hindus and Muslims shared syncretic traditions, Sufi shrines, folk culture, and local
festivals.
• Bhakti and Sufi movements promoted inter-religious harmony and composite
culture.
• Conflicts were mostly dynastic, regional, or economic rather than purely religious.
• Religious identity was fluid and overlapping, not rigid and politically opposed.
2. Colonial Period (1757–1947)
• Modern communalism is essentially a British colonial creation.
• The British kept Indians divided along religious lines to prevent united nationalist
resistance.
, 2
a) Census Operations (1871)** — Introduced religious classification, converting fluid
identities into fixed, opposed categories. Religion became the primary basis of social
classification.
b) Divide and Rule Policy** — British deliberately promoted Hindu-Muslim rivalry by
patronizing different religious elites and playing communities against each other.
c) Separate Electorates (1909)** — Morley-Minto Reforms gave Muslims separate
electorates, institutionalizing the idea that religious communities have permanently
separate political interests.
d) Rise of Communal Organizations** — Muslim League (1906), Hindu Mahasabha (1915),
and RSS (1925) emerged, deepening communal identities and political polarization.
e) Communal Award (1932)** — Extended separate electorates to Sikhs, Christians, and
Depressed Classes, further fragmenting political life along religious lines. Gandhi opposed
this through his fast unto death.
f) Two Nation Theory** — Jinnah articulated that Hindus and Muslims are two separate
nations, which became the ideological basis of the demand for Pakistan.
3. Partition Period (1947)
• Partition on religious lines was the most catastrophic expression of communalism.
• Around 14–17 million people displaced and nearly 2 million killed in communal
violence.
• Women suffered disproportionately through rape, abduction, and forced conversion.
• Left a deep psychological scar on Hindu-Muslim relations that shaped future
tensions.
4. Early Post-Independence Period (1947–1960s)
• India adopted a secular constitution guaranteeing equality regardless of religion.
• Nehru maintained a strongly secular stance and built a plural national identity.
• RSS was briefly banned after Gandhi's assassination by Hindu nationalist Nathuram
Godse.
• Sporadic communal riots continued but were politically contained by the state.
• Underlying social fault lines remained unresolved.
5. Rise of Communal Politics (1970s–1980s)
• Weakening of Congress opened space for identity-based communal mobilization.
• Emergency period (1975–77) destabilized the secular political consensus.
Communalism
Introduction
Communalism is one of the most serious social problems in India. It refers to the use of
religion as a basis for political mobilization, creating conflict between different religious
communities. It is not merely religious sentiment or devotion — it is the transformation of
religious identity into a political tool that promotes hostility between groups. India, being a
multi-religious society with Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and others, has been deeply
affected by communal tensions since the colonial period. Communalism has led to riots,
mass violence, displacement, and even the partition of the country in 1947.
Definition
Bipan Chandra — "Communalism is the belief that because people follow different religions,
they have different, mutually incompatible secular interests — social, economic and political
— and that therefore religious communities must be organized as political units in
opposition to each other."
Donald Eugene Smith — defined it as the politicization of religion, where religion moves
from the private sphere into public and political life.
In simple terms, communalism means loyalty to one's own religious community to the point
of developing hostility toward other religious communities, especially in political and social
life.
Evolution of Communalism in India
1. Pre-Colonial Period
• Religious differences existed but were not politically organized in the modern
communal sense.
• Hindus and Muslims shared syncretic traditions, Sufi shrines, folk culture, and local
festivals.
• Bhakti and Sufi movements promoted inter-religious harmony and composite
culture.
• Conflicts were mostly dynastic, regional, or economic rather than purely religious.
• Religious identity was fluid and overlapping, not rigid and politically opposed.
2. Colonial Period (1757–1947)
• Modern communalism is essentially a British colonial creation.
• The British kept Indians divided along religious lines to prevent united nationalist
resistance.
, 2
a) Census Operations (1871)** — Introduced religious classification, converting fluid
identities into fixed, opposed categories. Religion became the primary basis of social
classification.
b) Divide and Rule Policy** — British deliberately promoted Hindu-Muslim rivalry by
patronizing different religious elites and playing communities against each other.
c) Separate Electorates (1909)** — Morley-Minto Reforms gave Muslims separate
electorates, institutionalizing the idea that religious communities have permanently
separate political interests.
d) Rise of Communal Organizations** — Muslim League (1906), Hindu Mahasabha (1915),
and RSS (1925) emerged, deepening communal identities and political polarization.
e) Communal Award (1932)** — Extended separate electorates to Sikhs, Christians, and
Depressed Classes, further fragmenting political life along religious lines. Gandhi opposed
this through his fast unto death.
f) Two Nation Theory** — Jinnah articulated that Hindus and Muslims are two separate
nations, which became the ideological basis of the demand for Pakistan.
3. Partition Period (1947)
• Partition on religious lines was the most catastrophic expression of communalism.
• Around 14–17 million people displaced and nearly 2 million killed in communal
violence.
• Women suffered disproportionately through rape, abduction, and forced conversion.
• Left a deep psychological scar on Hindu-Muslim relations that shaped future
tensions.
4. Early Post-Independence Period (1947–1960s)
• India adopted a secular constitution guaranteeing equality regardless of religion.
• Nehru maintained a strongly secular stance and built a plural national identity.
• RSS was briefly banned after Gandhi's assassination by Hindu nationalist Nathuram
Godse.
• Sporadic communal riots continued but were politically contained by the state.
• Underlying social fault lines remained unresolved.
5. Rise of Communal Politics (1970s–1980s)
• Weakening of Congress opened space for identity-based communal mobilization.
• Emergency period (1975–77) destabilized the secular political consensus.
