The historical and philosophical development of social science is characterized by a transition
from Enlightenment-era moral philosophy to a structured, scientific study of human society,
marked by ongoing debates between positivist, interpretative, and critical perspectives.
1. Enlightenment Roots (17th–18th Century)
The foundational principles of social science lie in the European Enlightenment, which
emphasized reason, rationality, and scientific inquiry over tradition and supernatural
explanations 1, 2.
● Key Philosophers: Thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau developed social contract theory to explain the mechanism of social order
and the legitimacy of government 3.
● Shift to Natural Laws: Enlightenment figures believed the universe was governed by
natural laws rather than arbitrary rules 2, 4. David Hume advocated for naturalism,
arguing that reality should be investigated through the scientific method, while Jeremy
Bentham’s utilitarianism proposed that social actions be judged by their results 5, 6.
● Foundations of Theory: Ideas regarding social structure, individual agency, and the
impact of private property on inequality (notably by Rousseau) laid the groundwork for
later sociological thought 7, 8.
2. The Emergence of Formal Social Science (19th Century)
The 19th century saw social science become a distinct conceptual field, largely as a response to
the upheaval of the French and Industrial Revolutions 9, 10.
● Auguste Comte and Positivism: Comte is credited with coining the term "sociology"
and proposing that society passes through three stages: theological, philosophical, and
finally, scientific (positive) 10, 11. Positivism assumes that facts exist independently of
the researcher and should be gathered and systematized like crops in a harvest 12, 13.
● Émile Durkheim: Often considered the formal founder of sociology, Durkheim
established the first European department of the discipline 14, 15. He argued that social
facts should be treated as "things," advocating for a methodology derived from the
natural sciences to discover discoverable social laws 16, 17.
● The Methodenstreit: This famous "struggle over method" occurred in economics
between Carl Menger (Austrian School) and Gustav Schmoller (German Historical
School). Menger defended a deductive, "exact science" approach based on universals,
while Schmoller prioritized inductive, empirical, and historical detail 18-20.
3. The Interpretative Turn
In contrast to positivism, other thinkers argued that human behavior requires a methodology
distinct from the natural sciences.
● Wilhelm Dilthey: Dilthey distinguished between "explanation" (used in natural
sciences to interpret laws) and "understanding" (Verstehen), which he applied to the
human sciences 21-23. He argued that human phenomena are too complex for external
from Enlightenment-era moral philosophy to a structured, scientific study of human society,
marked by ongoing debates between positivist, interpretative, and critical perspectives.
1. Enlightenment Roots (17th–18th Century)
The foundational principles of social science lie in the European Enlightenment, which
emphasized reason, rationality, and scientific inquiry over tradition and supernatural
explanations 1, 2.
● Key Philosophers: Thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau developed social contract theory to explain the mechanism of social order
and the legitimacy of government 3.
● Shift to Natural Laws: Enlightenment figures believed the universe was governed by
natural laws rather than arbitrary rules 2, 4. David Hume advocated for naturalism,
arguing that reality should be investigated through the scientific method, while Jeremy
Bentham’s utilitarianism proposed that social actions be judged by their results 5, 6.
● Foundations of Theory: Ideas regarding social structure, individual agency, and the
impact of private property on inequality (notably by Rousseau) laid the groundwork for
later sociological thought 7, 8.
2. The Emergence of Formal Social Science (19th Century)
The 19th century saw social science become a distinct conceptual field, largely as a response to
the upheaval of the French and Industrial Revolutions 9, 10.
● Auguste Comte and Positivism: Comte is credited with coining the term "sociology"
and proposing that society passes through three stages: theological, philosophical, and
finally, scientific (positive) 10, 11. Positivism assumes that facts exist independently of
the researcher and should be gathered and systematized like crops in a harvest 12, 13.
● Émile Durkheim: Often considered the formal founder of sociology, Durkheim
established the first European department of the discipline 14, 15. He argued that social
facts should be treated as "things," advocating for a methodology derived from the
natural sciences to discover discoverable social laws 16, 17.
● The Methodenstreit: This famous "struggle over method" occurred in economics
between Carl Menger (Austrian School) and Gustav Schmoller (German Historical
School). Menger defended a deductive, "exact science" approach based on universals,
while Schmoller prioritized inductive, empirical, and historical detail 18-20.
3. The Interpretative Turn
In contrast to positivism, other thinkers argued that human behavior requires a methodology
distinct from the natural sciences.
● Wilhelm Dilthey: Dilthey distinguished between "explanation" (used in natural
sciences to interpret laws) and "understanding" (Verstehen), which he applied to the
human sciences 21-23. He argued that human phenomena are too complex for external
