PSYCHOLOGY CS204 MODULE 6 – REASONING AND
DECISION MAKING COMPLETE REVISED STUDY GUIDE
LATEST 2026
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
LECUTRECAST:
• Critical thinking uses evidence and reasons and strives to overcome individual
biases. Decisions as to which outcomes should be desirable are embedded in a
system of values and may differ from person-to-person, but the idea that critical
thinking makes desirable outcomes more likely provides a way of defining critical
thinking.
Critical thinking involves:
• Sound reasoning and the use of logic
• Judgement based on personal values and goals
• Meta-cognition
• Reflection
• Questioning
• Effort and deliberation in thought
• Using evidence and reasons to overcome individual biases
• Making ‘desirable outcomes’ (e.g. understanding something or making a
decision) more likely
WASON FOUR-CARD PROBLEM
• It is a logic puzzle devised by Peter Cathcart Wason in 1966.
COGNITIVE BIAS
• It turns out this problem taps a general cognitive bias to look to confirm
claims or statements when we are trying to assess truth, rather than
actively trying to dis- confirm them.
• You can see the effect at work with this abstract 4 card problem, but the effect is
stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs – for
instance looking for evidence to support a person you are close to or a political view
that you endorse while not taking a closer look at the counter-evidence.
• The tendency to seek out confirming evidence at the expense of dis-confirming
evidence, or proof via contradiction, is known as a "confirmation bias“, which we will
revisit later.
• Good critical thinkers are aware of this confirmation bias and take steps to counter
it. They develop sufficient logical reasoning skills to deal with this level of
challenge.
WHAT IS FAKE NEWS?
• Fake news has no basis in fact but is presented as being factually accurate.
• It uses sensationalist, dishonest, or outright fabricated content to increase
readership – usually with the intent to mislead in order to damage an organization or
person, and/or gain financially or politically.
• Fake news may play on people’s gullibility and the psychological appeal of
sensationalism.
These include:
• Being skeptical of catchy headlines.
• Looking for phony or ‘look-alike’ URLs.
• Investigating the source.
• Checking for evidence and other reports, or third party fact checkers.
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS EMPLOYERS WANT
• Applying knowledge in real world settings.
, • Analysing and solving problems.
• Connecting choices to actions.
• Being able to innovate and be creative.
DIANE HALPERN'S 2014 MODEL
Halpern's model involves four components:
1. Explicitly learn the skills of critical thinking.
2. Develop the attitude and disposition for being motivated to think something
through carefully, for persistence and learning.
3. Direct your learning activities for the critical thinking skills in this course in ways
that increase the likelihood you’ll recognize them in the real world. This is called
far transfer.
4. Make meta-cognitive monitoring a part of your thinking – where you monitor your
own thought processes and how well you are doing.
READING NOTES:
• Although there have always been attempts to get us to believe something that is
not true, the internet and social media have made these attempts more prevalent
and more pernicious.
• The rapidly accelerating pace of change and wide spread availability of a glut of
information and misinformation have made the ability to think critically more
important than at any other time in history.
• Critical thinking was defined as the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that
increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that
is purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed.
DECISION MAKING COMPLETE REVISED STUDY GUIDE
LATEST 2026
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
LECUTRECAST:
• Critical thinking uses evidence and reasons and strives to overcome individual
biases. Decisions as to which outcomes should be desirable are embedded in a
system of values and may differ from person-to-person, but the idea that critical
thinking makes desirable outcomes more likely provides a way of defining critical
thinking.
Critical thinking involves:
• Sound reasoning and the use of logic
• Judgement based on personal values and goals
• Meta-cognition
• Reflection
• Questioning
• Effort and deliberation in thought
• Using evidence and reasons to overcome individual biases
• Making ‘desirable outcomes’ (e.g. understanding something or making a
decision) more likely
WASON FOUR-CARD PROBLEM
• It is a logic puzzle devised by Peter Cathcart Wason in 1966.
COGNITIVE BIAS
• It turns out this problem taps a general cognitive bias to look to confirm
claims or statements when we are trying to assess truth, rather than
actively trying to dis- confirm them.
• You can see the effect at work with this abstract 4 card problem, but the effect is
stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs – for
instance looking for evidence to support a person you are close to or a political view
that you endorse while not taking a closer look at the counter-evidence.
• The tendency to seek out confirming evidence at the expense of dis-confirming
evidence, or proof via contradiction, is known as a "confirmation bias“, which we will
revisit later.
• Good critical thinkers are aware of this confirmation bias and take steps to counter
it. They develop sufficient logical reasoning skills to deal with this level of
challenge.
WHAT IS FAKE NEWS?
• Fake news has no basis in fact but is presented as being factually accurate.
• It uses sensationalist, dishonest, or outright fabricated content to increase
readership – usually with the intent to mislead in order to damage an organization or
person, and/or gain financially or politically.
• Fake news may play on people’s gullibility and the psychological appeal of
sensationalism.
These include:
• Being skeptical of catchy headlines.
• Looking for phony or ‘look-alike’ URLs.
• Investigating the source.
• Checking for evidence and other reports, or third party fact checkers.
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS EMPLOYERS WANT
• Applying knowledge in real world settings.
, • Analysing and solving problems.
• Connecting choices to actions.
• Being able to innovate and be creative.
DIANE HALPERN'S 2014 MODEL
Halpern's model involves four components:
1. Explicitly learn the skills of critical thinking.
2. Develop the attitude and disposition for being motivated to think something
through carefully, for persistence and learning.
3. Direct your learning activities for the critical thinking skills in this course in ways
that increase the likelihood you’ll recognize them in the real world. This is called
far transfer.
4. Make meta-cognitive monitoring a part of your thinking – where you monitor your
own thought processes and how well you are doing.
READING NOTES:
• Although there have always been attempts to get us to believe something that is
not true, the internet and social media have made these attempts more prevalent
and more pernicious.
• The rapidly accelerating pace of change and wide spread availability of a glut of
information and misinformation have made the ability to think critically more
important than at any other time in history.
• Critical thinking was defined as the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that
increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that
is purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed.
