Chapter 1: The origins of science
Scientific research 2 headings
Natural philosophy = science of nature
Natural history = study of organisms
Confirmation bias
Self-fulfilling prophecies
Selective perception
Greek civilization
Chapter 2: the scientific method
Two types of knowledge
1. What is the case?
2. Why?
Deduction, induction and abduction find their origin with Aristotle.
Deduction
Form of argument (deductive logic): general specific
A deductive argument works from the universal (or general) towards the
individual (specific)
All humans are mortal
X is a human
X is mortal
All dogs have five legs
X is a dog
X has five legs
You have to make a distinction between a valid and a correct argument
Valid when the conclusion follows necessarily from the two premises
Correct when we can observe it in reality (you can’t observe a dog with 5 legs)
Material implication
If p then q; (p q)
P holds; (p)
Therefore q; (I- q)
Or
If p then q; (pq)
Not q; (-\ q)
Therefore not p; (I- -/ p[)
Example of affirming the consequent (BEVESTIGEND)
When it rains the streets get wet
It rains
The streets get wet
,Example of modus tollens (ONTKENNEND)
When it rains the streets get wet
The streets are dry
It does not rain
Form of science (deductive science)
Deductive sciences do not take empirical phenomena as their point of departure,
but rather start from particular axioms which are considered more or less
evident.
Deductive science relies heavily on logic and argument to build the body of
knowledge
Induction
Form of argument (inductive logic): specific general
Example:
All X have been studied
All studied X have characteristic Y
All X have characteristic Y
I have seen a number of trees
All those trees have green leaves
All trees have green leaves
Conducting science (inductive science)
Inductive science relies heavily on observation of empirical phenomena
Abduction (reduction)
Abduction means creating a hypothesis (conjecture) which can explain an
empirical phenomenon.
Ockham’s razor if you have two explanations for the same phenomenon, you
should always choose the simpler of the two, because simpler solutions are more
likely to be correct.
Context of discovery: refers to the situation in which ideas and hypotheses are
generated, which should explain certain phenomena.
Context of justification: refers to the situation in which ideas, hypotheses and
theories are tested against logic and/or empirical evidence.
5 core concepts in empirical research:
Model: representation of a certain phenomenon
Implicit/mental models: the models we use in everyday life.
Explicit models: either physical (maquette or planetarium) or conceptual
models.
Law: has everything to do with patterns and regularities
, Experiment: an experiment refers to an artificial research setting, created for
the purpose of testing hypotheses.
Hypothesis: prediction/expectation
Theory: facts and statements need to be ordered in a logical, consistent whole.
Such an ordered whole is called a theory.
Scientific revolution 16th and 17th century dramatic change in the way scientific
knowledge was acquired (Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and
Newton).
Chapter 3: A dominant paradigm
Metaphysical: statements that are beyond that which can be observed in
empirical reality and it is closely linked to what is known in philosophy as
ontology.
Logical positivism: focuses on statements with an empirical claim.
Synthetical statements statements with an empirical claim
Analytic statements statements without an empirical claim, they are true by
definition. ‘’Someone who is not married is unmarried’’
Criticism on logical positivism (by Karl Popper) 2 points of criticism:
1. Principle of verification
2. Inductive method
Propper’s approach is known as critical rationalism.
He makes also the distinction between context of justification and context of
discovery
Propper thinks we can never acquire certain knowledge via induction.
Falsificationism: in case a test confirms a theory, we are not certain that it is true,
while we are certain in case the test does not concur with the theory that it is
false. (inductive approach: theories cannot be proved, but theories/hypotheses
can be disproved).
Logical positivism and critical rationalism have a lot in common. Mayor
differences relate to induction vs deduction and verification vs falsification.
Several philosophers of science have critiqued some of Popper’s ideas. 2 of
these are important.
1. Under which conditions the falsification of a hypothesis or a general law
will actually lead to rejection of that hypothesis or of the theory to which
the hypothesis and laws belongs.
2. The distinction between deterministic and probabilistic statements.
Deterministic law = always when I execute A, B will be the consequence.
Probabilistic = when I execute A, B might happen.
Concepts can be classified in the following 2 classifications:
a) individual vs. universal
Individual one particular object
Universal a class of objects
b) empirical vs. non-empirical
Scientific research 2 headings
Natural philosophy = science of nature
Natural history = study of organisms
Confirmation bias
Self-fulfilling prophecies
Selective perception
Greek civilization
Chapter 2: the scientific method
Two types of knowledge
1. What is the case?
2. Why?
Deduction, induction and abduction find their origin with Aristotle.
Deduction
Form of argument (deductive logic): general specific
A deductive argument works from the universal (or general) towards the
individual (specific)
All humans are mortal
X is a human
X is mortal
All dogs have five legs
X is a dog
X has five legs
You have to make a distinction between a valid and a correct argument
Valid when the conclusion follows necessarily from the two premises
Correct when we can observe it in reality (you can’t observe a dog with 5 legs)
Material implication
If p then q; (p q)
P holds; (p)
Therefore q; (I- q)
Or
If p then q; (pq)
Not q; (-\ q)
Therefore not p; (I- -/ p[)
Example of affirming the consequent (BEVESTIGEND)
When it rains the streets get wet
It rains
The streets get wet
,Example of modus tollens (ONTKENNEND)
When it rains the streets get wet
The streets are dry
It does not rain
Form of science (deductive science)
Deductive sciences do not take empirical phenomena as their point of departure,
but rather start from particular axioms which are considered more or less
evident.
Deductive science relies heavily on logic and argument to build the body of
knowledge
Induction
Form of argument (inductive logic): specific general
Example:
All X have been studied
All studied X have characteristic Y
All X have characteristic Y
I have seen a number of trees
All those trees have green leaves
All trees have green leaves
Conducting science (inductive science)
Inductive science relies heavily on observation of empirical phenomena
Abduction (reduction)
Abduction means creating a hypothesis (conjecture) which can explain an
empirical phenomenon.
Ockham’s razor if you have two explanations for the same phenomenon, you
should always choose the simpler of the two, because simpler solutions are more
likely to be correct.
Context of discovery: refers to the situation in which ideas and hypotheses are
generated, which should explain certain phenomena.
Context of justification: refers to the situation in which ideas, hypotheses and
theories are tested against logic and/or empirical evidence.
5 core concepts in empirical research:
Model: representation of a certain phenomenon
Implicit/mental models: the models we use in everyday life.
Explicit models: either physical (maquette or planetarium) or conceptual
models.
Law: has everything to do with patterns and regularities
, Experiment: an experiment refers to an artificial research setting, created for
the purpose of testing hypotheses.
Hypothesis: prediction/expectation
Theory: facts and statements need to be ordered in a logical, consistent whole.
Such an ordered whole is called a theory.
Scientific revolution 16th and 17th century dramatic change in the way scientific
knowledge was acquired (Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and
Newton).
Chapter 3: A dominant paradigm
Metaphysical: statements that are beyond that which can be observed in
empirical reality and it is closely linked to what is known in philosophy as
ontology.
Logical positivism: focuses on statements with an empirical claim.
Synthetical statements statements with an empirical claim
Analytic statements statements without an empirical claim, they are true by
definition. ‘’Someone who is not married is unmarried’’
Criticism on logical positivism (by Karl Popper) 2 points of criticism:
1. Principle of verification
2. Inductive method
Propper’s approach is known as critical rationalism.
He makes also the distinction between context of justification and context of
discovery
Propper thinks we can never acquire certain knowledge via induction.
Falsificationism: in case a test confirms a theory, we are not certain that it is true,
while we are certain in case the test does not concur with the theory that it is
false. (inductive approach: theories cannot be proved, but theories/hypotheses
can be disproved).
Logical positivism and critical rationalism have a lot in common. Mayor
differences relate to induction vs deduction and verification vs falsification.
Several philosophers of science have critiqued some of Popper’s ideas. 2 of
these are important.
1. Under which conditions the falsification of a hypothesis or a general law
will actually lead to rejection of that hypothesis or of the theory to which
the hypothesis and laws belongs.
2. The distinction between deterministic and probabilistic statements.
Deterministic law = always when I execute A, B will be the consequence.
Probabilistic = when I execute A, B might happen.
Concepts can be classified in the following 2 classifications:
a) individual vs. universal
Individual one particular object
Universal a class of objects
b) empirical vs. non-empirical
