PYC2603 - CHAPTER 03 SUMMARIZED
CHAPTER 03: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Introduction
The popular concepts of a ‘senior moment’ and ‘you can’t teach an old dog new tricks’ are intended
to be humorous reflections of adults’ reference to a temporary memory lapse or an inability to learn.
Cognitive skills, (the ability to learn, remember, solve problems and be knowledgeable about the
world) are not only important in managing everyday life (e.g. job performance, driving, social
interactions, health care) but are also important in terms of the way people view themselves.
It is therefore understandable that as individuals age, they may become concerned about their
continued abilities to adapt to and to cope with the demands of everyday life. This concern may
have been made worse by early researchers and theorists who concluded that because of biological
deterioration, most cognitive abilities as well inevitably decline as people age.
David Wechsler, wrote, “Nearly all studies have shown that most human abilities decline
progressively after reaching a peak somewhere between ages 18-25”.
Researchers have discovered that cognitive development is an extremely complex process and that
there are no simple answers to the question whether cognitions generally decline as we age.
However, the controversy continues with some researchers indicating that general decline “is largely
a myth”, while others maintain that decline “is clearly a part of the ageing picture”.
The resulting questions therefore are:
Are there changes in memory, intelligence and general problem-solving abilities as we age?
If so, what is the extent of these changes?
Do all cognitive abilities change at the same rate?
3.2 Basic Cognitive Functions: Information Processing and Memory
The computer is often used as an analogy to explain how information processing tasks such as
remembering, and decision-making are carried out. just as a computer goes through various steps to
process incoming data to a stage where it produces the required output, the human cognitive
system also proceeds through a series of stages.
The information (or data) is entered into the brain through various sensory routes (e.g. auditory,
visual, tactile senses) where is it encoded and interpreted (analysed). As with a computer, the brain
either stores the information in memory for further use or uses it immediately.
3.2.2 Information Processing Speed
Information processing speed refers to the amount of time it takes a person to process a stimulate,
prepare a response and then execute (act on) that response. The ability to process information
quickly is advantageous in many areas of everyday life, such as responding to a question or
recognising a voice or face. It also aids in activities such as sports or driving. Whenever there is a
stimulus and a response to it, there is a reaction time. Reaction time is therefore a measure of how
long it takes a person to respond to a stimulus.
, It is a well-established fact that the reaction times of people get slower as they get older. This
slowing down in information processing also has an effect on general intellectual functioning. Some
of the theories attempting to explain this phenomenon are the following:
The general slowing hypothesis states that slower reaction time reflects a decline in the
nervous system. One reason is sensory processing. Information may be brought more slowly
into the nervous system and this causes a delay in the ability to produce a response. A
second contributing factor is a loss in the speed of neural transmission. This is caused by
either a loss of neurons, a slowing of synaptic communication or a loss of information at
each synaptic transmission.
Age-complexity hypothesis. In general, the complexity of a task affects how quickly people
respond. With simple tasks, there is little difference between younger and older adults’
reaction times. For both younger and older adults, the more complex the task, the slower
the response will be. However, as the tasks increase in complexity, the difference between
younger and older adults’ reaction times also increases. Since complex tasks require more
extensive processing at a central level (an attentional control system), the differences noted
between the younger and older adults’ reaction time could be related to age-related
differences at the level of central processing.
It should be noted that older adults do not become disadvantaged or less efficient during any
particular component of processing tasks; they only become slower. Furthermore, although reaction
time is important, this is not the most important factor in intellectual change. In addition, although
declining processing speed may be related to biological factors, decline may also in part be related to
other factors such as lack of appropriate practise, ill health and a poor level of education.
3.2.3 Memory
Memory refers to the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information. Memory is an essential
capacity in our cognitive functioning, whether we have to make immediate or subsequent use of the
information in our environment.
Some conceptualisations of memory compare the human mind to a computer, although increasing
attention is being paid to neuropsychology and links to brain functioning. It is often believed that
memory is a homogenous skill – that everything is memorised in the same way. This is incorrect,
however, since different types of memories (e.g. for words, pictures or physical skills) are stored in
different sections of the brain. Memory systems also behave in different ways, for example, ‘verbal’
or ‘visual’ memories represent anatomically and functionally distinct systems.
3.2.3.1 The Concepts of Memory
Memory span. One of the simplest ways of categorising memory is by the length of time (or
memory span) over which memories are retained. This means a division into short-term
memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
Short-term memory is the temporary storage of information or events perceived very
recently. The STM is further sub-divided into the primary memory and working memory.
Primary memory is associated with the passive retention of material. It therefore holds
material in the same form in which is was entered. Working memory in contrast, actively
processes and manipulates the information and is necessary in activities such as learning,
reasoning and comprehension. For example, reading this paragraph, it is necessary to keep
in mind what has just been read in order to make sense of what is currently being read – this
means that something has to be remembered while another mental operation takes place.
CHAPTER 03: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Introduction
The popular concepts of a ‘senior moment’ and ‘you can’t teach an old dog new tricks’ are intended
to be humorous reflections of adults’ reference to a temporary memory lapse or an inability to learn.
Cognitive skills, (the ability to learn, remember, solve problems and be knowledgeable about the
world) are not only important in managing everyday life (e.g. job performance, driving, social
interactions, health care) but are also important in terms of the way people view themselves.
It is therefore understandable that as individuals age, they may become concerned about their
continued abilities to adapt to and to cope with the demands of everyday life. This concern may
have been made worse by early researchers and theorists who concluded that because of biological
deterioration, most cognitive abilities as well inevitably decline as people age.
David Wechsler, wrote, “Nearly all studies have shown that most human abilities decline
progressively after reaching a peak somewhere between ages 18-25”.
Researchers have discovered that cognitive development is an extremely complex process and that
there are no simple answers to the question whether cognitions generally decline as we age.
However, the controversy continues with some researchers indicating that general decline “is largely
a myth”, while others maintain that decline “is clearly a part of the ageing picture”.
The resulting questions therefore are:
Are there changes in memory, intelligence and general problem-solving abilities as we age?
If so, what is the extent of these changes?
Do all cognitive abilities change at the same rate?
3.2 Basic Cognitive Functions: Information Processing and Memory
The computer is often used as an analogy to explain how information processing tasks such as
remembering, and decision-making are carried out. just as a computer goes through various steps to
process incoming data to a stage where it produces the required output, the human cognitive
system also proceeds through a series of stages.
The information (or data) is entered into the brain through various sensory routes (e.g. auditory,
visual, tactile senses) where is it encoded and interpreted (analysed). As with a computer, the brain
either stores the information in memory for further use or uses it immediately.
3.2.2 Information Processing Speed
Information processing speed refers to the amount of time it takes a person to process a stimulate,
prepare a response and then execute (act on) that response. The ability to process information
quickly is advantageous in many areas of everyday life, such as responding to a question or
recognising a voice or face. It also aids in activities such as sports or driving. Whenever there is a
stimulus and a response to it, there is a reaction time. Reaction time is therefore a measure of how
long it takes a person to respond to a stimulus.
, It is a well-established fact that the reaction times of people get slower as they get older. This
slowing down in information processing also has an effect on general intellectual functioning. Some
of the theories attempting to explain this phenomenon are the following:
The general slowing hypothesis states that slower reaction time reflects a decline in the
nervous system. One reason is sensory processing. Information may be brought more slowly
into the nervous system and this causes a delay in the ability to produce a response. A
second contributing factor is a loss in the speed of neural transmission. This is caused by
either a loss of neurons, a slowing of synaptic communication or a loss of information at
each synaptic transmission.
Age-complexity hypothesis. In general, the complexity of a task affects how quickly people
respond. With simple tasks, there is little difference between younger and older adults’
reaction times. For both younger and older adults, the more complex the task, the slower
the response will be. However, as the tasks increase in complexity, the difference between
younger and older adults’ reaction times also increases. Since complex tasks require more
extensive processing at a central level (an attentional control system), the differences noted
between the younger and older adults’ reaction time could be related to age-related
differences at the level of central processing.
It should be noted that older adults do not become disadvantaged or less efficient during any
particular component of processing tasks; they only become slower. Furthermore, although reaction
time is important, this is not the most important factor in intellectual change. In addition, although
declining processing speed may be related to biological factors, decline may also in part be related to
other factors such as lack of appropriate practise, ill health and a poor level of education.
3.2.3 Memory
Memory refers to the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information. Memory is an essential
capacity in our cognitive functioning, whether we have to make immediate or subsequent use of the
information in our environment.
Some conceptualisations of memory compare the human mind to a computer, although increasing
attention is being paid to neuropsychology and links to brain functioning. It is often believed that
memory is a homogenous skill – that everything is memorised in the same way. This is incorrect,
however, since different types of memories (e.g. for words, pictures or physical skills) are stored in
different sections of the brain. Memory systems also behave in different ways, for example, ‘verbal’
or ‘visual’ memories represent anatomically and functionally distinct systems.
3.2.3.1 The Concepts of Memory
Memory span. One of the simplest ways of categorising memory is by the length of time (or
memory span) over which memories are retained. This means a division into short-term
memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
Short-term memory is the temporary storage of information or events perceived very
recently. The STM is further sub-divided into the primary memory and working memory.
Primary memory is associated with the passive retention of material. It therefore holds
material in the same form in which is was entered. Working memory in contrast, actively
processes and manipulates the information and is necessary in activities such as learning,
reasoning and comprehension. For example, reading this paragraph, it is necessary to keep
in mind what has just been read in order to make sense of what is currently being read – this
means that something has to be remembered while another mental operation takes place.
