CHAPTER 1: DIFFERENT METHODS OF ACQUIRING
KNOWLEDGE
For the purpose of this module it is important to differentiate between the non-scientific
and scientific method of acquiring knowledge. Therefore group them according to the
method of authority (1), mystical method (2), intuitive method (3) and conventional
wisdom (4) which comprise the non-scientific method, and then the rationalistic method
(1) and empirical method (2) which are the necessary components of the scientific
method.
Research
- To look again
Social
- people/ human beings
Sciences
Process of systematic inquiry (gain knowledge) which…..
- makes sense (logical),
- has a reference (observed evidence) and gives
- an explanation (theory).
1. KNOWLEDGE AND HOW IT IS ACQUIRED:
How does society progress?
by constantly generating new knowledge
formulating specific questions and finding answers to them
Understanding ourselves and our environment
Epistemology – The study of ways of knowing about the world (i.e. The question “what
is knowledge?”)
1.1. Non-scientific methods of acquiring knowledge
Method of Authority: relying on the knowledge and “wisdom” of prominent people,
e.g. religious leaders, politicians, elderly people, kings in feudal societies,
technocrats, etc. (When you ask your parents why, they say “because I said so)
Critique: allows individuals to hide the superficiality of their knowledge, its
underlying ideologies, and weaknesses in judgment.
Mystical method: (A variation of the method of authority) Based on texts or
supernatural source. E.g. Traditional Healers
Intuitive method: Ordinary reasoning through instinct/intuition (based on what
‘feels’ right for them). E.g. A doctor may arrive at a diagnosis for a patient because
, she has an intuitive feeling about the ailment and may want to prescribe treatment
accordingly.
Critique:
-Others may not come to similar conclusions I the same situation, as their
intuitive feeling may be different (This method depends on the individual and his
or her personal understanding of the issue)
-The intuitive method is not transparent and cannot be communicated easily to
others.
-Decisions and conclusions arrived by the intuitive method are not easily
replicable.
Conventional Wisdom: Accepted knowledge (Common sense understanding) of
the world. It is a variation of the intuitive method. E.g. “opposites attract”, “birds of
a feather flock together”, “out of sight, out of mind”, “absence makes the heart grow
fonder”
Critique: There is no systematic way of determining which of these statements
is accurate.
General Critique of Non-scientific methods
No systematic way of determining which of these statements is accurate
Mainly based on faith/worldview
1.2. The scientific method
The scientific method is the process of knowing.
It is the synthesis of: (1) rationalistic method
(2) empirical methods
Uses rationalism to develop theories
Uses empiricism to test theories
Science – continuous interplay of rational thought and empirical observation
The rationalistic and empirical method:
Do not attribute special aptitudes to particular persons.
Differ only in importance given to reasoning and observation.
The Rationalistic and empirical method compliments each other.
1.2.1. The rationalistic method:
based on human reason and logic - the basis of knowledge is correct reasoning
discovers laws through purely intellectual processes
, enables us to know what is true by principle, e.g. pure mathematics
used to develop theories about the world
Rational Thoughts – Your developed hypothesis of why (You see something and come
up with a hypothesis of why it’s that way)
Empirical method – To Test your hypothesis by asking Q based on the hypothesis (ask
Q from where you observed the situation)
1.2.2. The empirical method:
the opposite of the rationalistic method
facts objectively observed in nature are the foundation of knowledge
knowledge is based on only what is observable / perceived by our senses
used to test theories about the world
2. IN SCIENCE THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE:
A PRIORI KNOWLEDGE A POSTERIORI KNOWLEDGE
“FROM THE EARLIER” “FROM THE LATER”
A priori knowledge is knowledge that we A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that
can have "prior to experience". we can have only after we have certain
experiences.
A priori knowledge or justification is A posteriori knowledge or justification is
independent of experience. dependent on experience or empirical
evidence.
3. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND ITS PROPERTIES
3.1. Quantitative Research
e.g. The of the efficiency of a certain training programme is qualitative.
Let’s use the example of James who is wealthy, we are trying to find out where he gets
his income from. Using quantitative research, how do we do that?
Step 1: A description of the object, relationship or situation (empirical) is
required.
This includes the biography of James, he is wealthy, he is a student, drives an
expensive car to campus, stays in a 2 bedroom flat and does grocery shopping
at Woolworths.
Step 2: An explanation or statement of the relationship between the described
facts should be expressed (rationalistic)
, We have observed all of this about him and we’ve come up with a rational
explanation that he is receiving his money from somewhere. We have
hypothesized that, that somewhere could be his parents.
Step 3: A prediction of future events under well-defined conditions should be
permitted by the stated explanation.
If we kill James parents, he will no longer be able to do her grocery shopping at
Woolworths.
Step 4: Intelligent intervention, based on correct explanations leading to the
ability to predict events.
Hire an assassin to Kill James Parents and then see if it leads to the prediction,
we made in step 3.
3.2. Qualitative Research
e.g. The investigation of the attitudes and problems encountered by the
participants of that programme is qualitative.
Researcher concentrates on observation and recording of events
No a priori explanations are given
No expectations or predictions can be tested
A posteriori explanations (at the end)
4. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ASSUMPTIONS:
The existence of natural and social laws – Science presumes order and
regularity in natural and social events.
Laws can be discovered by human beings – Scientific research assumes that,
although human beings are part of nature and are themselves subject to its laws ,
they can discover those laws.
Natural phenomena have natural causes – no supernatural powers are
necessary to grasp the cause of events and no unexplainable way supernatural
forces are needed to explain the way nature functions.
scientific understanding is based on parsimony of ideas: explanations for
phenomena are based on as few assumptions as possible, they are to be as
simple as possible
New knowledge is accumulated gradually and sequentially – Numerous
examples show how invention of new instruments of investigation and new
approaches to studying a problem can lead to new advances in science.
Knowledge and truth are founded on evidence – Much of the time, observations
that are made on the basis of the senses constitute evidence.
KNOWLEDGE
For the purpose of this module it is important to differentiate between the non-scientific
and scientific method of acquiring knowledge. Therefore group them according to the
method of authority (1), mystical method (2), intuitive method (3) and conventional
wisdom (4) which comprise the non-scientific method, and then the rationalistic method
(1) and empirical method (2) which are the necessary components of the scientific
method.
Research
- To look again
Social
- people/ human beings
Sciences
Process of systematic inquiry (gain knowledge) which…..
- makes sense (logical),
- has a reference (observed evidence) and gives
- an explanation (theory).
1. KNOWLEDGE AND HOW IT IS ACQUIRED:
How does society progress?
by constantly generating new knowledge
formulating specific questions and finding answers to them
Understanding ourselves and our environment
Epistemology – The study of ways of knowing about the world (i.e. The question “what
is knowledge?”)
1.1. Non-scientific methods of acquiring knowledge
Method of Authority: relying on the knowledge and “wisdom” of prominent people,
e.g. religious leaders, politicians, elderly people, kings in feudal societies,
technocrats, etc. (When you ask your parents why, they say “because I said so)
Critique: allows individuals to hide the superficiality of their knowledge, its
underlying ideologies, and weaknesses in judgment.
Mystical method: (A variation of the method of authority) Based on texts or
supernatural source. E.g. Traditional Healers
Intuitive method: Ordinary reasoning through instinct/intuition (based on what
‘feels’ right for them). E.g. A doctor may arrive at a diagnosis for a patient because
, she has an intuitive feeling about the ailment and may want to prescribe treatment
accordingly.
Critique:
-Others may not come to similar conclusions I the same situation, as their
intuitive feeling may be different (This method depends on the individual and his
or her personal understanding of the issue)
-The intuitive method is not transparent and cannot be communicated easily to
others.
-Decisions and conclusions arrived by the intuitive method are not easily
replicable.
Conventional Wisdom: Accepted knowledge (Common sense understanding) of
the world. It is a variation of the intuitive method. E.g. “opposites attract”, “birds of
a feather flock together”, “out of sight, out of mind”, “absence makes the heart grow
fonder”
Critique: There is no systematic way of determining which of these statements
is accurate.
General Critique of Non-scientific methods
No systematic way of determining which of these statements is accurate
Mainly based on faith/worldview
1.2. The scientific method
The scientific method is the process of knowing.
It is the synthesis of: (1) rationalistic method
(2) empirical methods
Uses rationalism to develop theories
Uses empiricism to test theories
Science – continuous interplay of rational thought and empirical observation
The rationalistic and empirical method:
Do not attribute special aptitudes to particular persons.
Differ only in importance given to reasoning and observation.
The Rationalistic and empirical method compliments each other.
1.2.1. The rationalistic method:
based on human reason and logic - the basis of knowledge is correct reasoning
discovers laws through purely intellectual processes
, enables us to know what is true by principle, e.g. pure mathematics
used to develop theories about the world
Rational Thoughts – Your developed hypothesis of why (You see something and come
up with a hypothesis of why it’s that way)
Empirical method – To Test your hypothesis by asking Q based on the hypothesis (ask
Q from where you observed the situation)
1.2.2. The empirical method:
the opposite of the rationalistic method
facts objectively observed in nature are the foundation of knowledge
knowledge is based on only what is observable / perceived by our senses
used to test theories about the world
2. IN SCIENCE THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE:
A PRIORI KNOWLEDGE A POSTERIORI KNOWLEDGE
“FROM THE EARLIER” “FROM THE LATER”
A priori knowledge is knowledge that we A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that
can have "prior to experience". we can have only after we have certain
experiences.
A priori knowledge or justification is A posteriori knowledge or justification is
independent of experience. dependent on experience or empirical
evidence.
3. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND ITS PROPERTIES
3.1. Quantitative Research
e.g. The of the efficiency of a certain training programme is qualitative.
Let’s use the example of James who is wealthy, we are trying to find out where he gets
his income from. Using quantitative research, how do we do that?
Step 1: A description of the object, relationship or situation (empirical) is
required.
This includes the biography of James, he is wealthy, he is a student, drives an
expensive car to campus, stays in a 2 bedroom flat and does grocery shopping
at Woolworths.
Step 2: An explanation or statement of the relationship between the described
facts should be expressed (rationalistic)
, We have observed all of this about him and we’ve come up with a rational
explanation that he is receiving his money from somewhere. We have
hypothesized that, that somewhere could be his parents.
Step 3: A prediction of future events under well-defined conditions should be
permitted by the stated explanation.
If we kill James parents, he will no longer be able to do her grocery shopping at
Woolworths.
Step 4: Intelligent intervention, based on correct explanations leading to the
ability to predict events.
Hire an assassin to Kill James Parents and then see if it leads to the prediction,
we made in step 3.
3.2. Qualitative Research
e.g. The investigation of the attitudes and problems encountered by the
participants of that programme is qualitative.
Researcher concentrates on observation and recording of events
No a priori explanations are given
No expectations or predictions can be tested
A posteriori explanations (at the end)
4. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ASSUMPTIONS:
The existence of natural and social laws – Science presumes order and
regularity in natural and social events.
Laws can be discovered by human beings – Scientific research assumes that,
although human beings are part of nature and are themselves subject to its laws ,
they can discover those laws.
Natural phenomena have natural causes – no supernatural powers are
necessary to grasp the cause of events and no unexplainable way supernatural
forces are needed to explain the way nature functions.
scientific understanding is based on parsimony of ideas: explanations for
phenomena are based on as few assumptions as possible, they are to be as
simple as possible
New knowledge is accumulated gradually and sequentially – Numerous
examples show how invention of new instruments of investigation and new
approaches to studying a problem can lead to new advances in science.
Knowledge and truth are founded on evidence – Much of the time, observations
that are made on the basis of the senses constitute evidence.
