Chapter 1
1.1
Business research = a systematic examination with the objective to provide the information
that will solve managerial problems.
Management dilemma = problem/opportunity that requires a management decision.
Different types of study:
- Reporting To provide an account or summation of data, or to generate statistics (from
available information sources). little inference or little conclusion drawing.
- Descriptive tries to discover answers to the questions who, what, how, when, where.
Describing/ defining a subject, often by creating a profile of a group of problems, people or
events (why occur events and why do the variables interact in the way they do?). Observing
an event or characteristics (research variables). No powerful inferences.
- Explanatory Goes one step beyond descriptive, it gives answers on why and how
questions. To explain the reasons why the phenomenon occurs (theories/hypotheses to
account for the forces that caused a certain phenomenon to occur).
Predictive If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has occurred, it is
desirable to be able to predict when and in what situation such an event might reoccur
(economic predictions for example). This type of study calls for a high level of inference.
Once we can explain and predict a phenomenon, we would like to control it being able to
replicate a scenario and dictate a particular outcome is the objective of control. This is only
possible if the researcher could account for and control all other variables influencing the
applications.
1.3
Research is always problem-solving based! All research should provide an answer to a
question.
Problem-solving can be generated either by a negative circumstance (problem) or an
opportunity for a company.
Applied research = conducted in order to reveal answers to specific questions related to
action, performance or policy needs and has a practical problem-solving nature.
Pure research and Basic research = are also problem-solving based, but in a different sense.
Purpose is to solve perplexing questions/problems of a theoretical nature that have little
direct impact on action, performance or policy decisions.
1.4
Good research generates dependable data (which is derived through professionally
conducted practices and that can be used and relied upon). Good research follows the
structure of the scientific method (page 12).
1.5
Research is reasoning (theory) and observations (data/information).
Two most research philosophies:
Positivism adopted from the natural science.
, Interpretivism / Phenomenology Interpretivist hold the view that the social world
cannot be understood by applying research principles adopted from the natural
sciences. Interpretivists research social phenomena by making sense of how people
interpret the social world.
Positivism vs Interpretivism
Basic principles Positivism Interpretivism/phenomenology
View of the world: External and objective Socially constructed and
subjective meaning by people
Involvement of researcher: Independent (role of an Part of what is being observed
objective analyst). and interpretation is socially
constructed.
Researcher’s influence: Value-free Driven by human interest
Assumptions
Research/observations are? Objective, quantitative, facts Subjective interpretations of
meanings
How is knowledge developed? Reducing phenomena to the researcher relies on
simple elements representing multiple sources and different
general laws methods to collect information
on the phenomena to detect
explanations beyond the
current knowledge
Usually larger samples Smaller sample sizes
Reasoning approach using an inductive reasoning using a deductive reasoning.
(multiple answers)
Realism is a research philosophy sharing principles of positivism and interpretivism.
- The believe that social sciences can rely on the research approach dominant in
the natural sciences (like positivism) it accepts the existence of a reality
independent of human beliefs and behaviour.
- The believe that understanding people and their behaviour requires
acknowledgement of the subjectivity inherent to humans there are social
processes and forces beyond the control of humans, which affects ours beliefs
and behaviour.
1.6
characteristic of scientific research is theory; however, the place where you introduce theory
can differ Start with theory in order to test it or solve a theoretical contradiction or close
with theoretical considerations drawn from your observations. The position (role) of theory
in research is linked to two different reasoning approaches:
Deduction:
- Form of inference that the conclusion must necessarily follow from the reason given
,(conclusion represent proof).
- To be correct, it must be both true and valid:
- Reasons given for the conclusion must agree with the real world (true).
- The conclusion must necessarily follow from the principles (valid). A deduction is
valid if the conclusion is impossibly false if the principles (reasons) are true.
- Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypothesis is capable of explaining
the fact. There is a strong relationship between reasons and conclusions.
Induction:
- To draw a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence.
- The conclusion explains the facts, and the facts support the conclusion.
- Although one inductive conclusion (hypothesis) explains a fact, other conclusions can also
explain this fact.
- Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask; ‘Why is this?’
1.7
Concepts and constructs are theoretical, variables are measurable.
Concepts: Something you want to measure in a research. Culturally shared and accepted
with a proper definition. A collection of meanings/characteristics associated with certain
events, objects, conditions, situations and behaviours het classifiseren van bepaalde
waardes zoals height, width and dept, time period (weekly, monthly or annually) (labels to
designate words).
Most concepts are objective concepts that we can all visualize, we can all agree to the
meaning of them (dog, table, electric, money). Concrete and easily to measure.
Construct: specifically developed for research purposes.
An abstract concept which is difficult to visualize (personality, motivation, leadership). A
construct is build up by combining simpler concepts and the meaning is not percepted the
same by everyone Language skills (construct) = vocabulary, syntax and spelling (concepts).
In research, we must measure concepts and constructs, and this requires definitions
(meaning of/insight what a concept/construct really is):
Dictionary definitions: a concept defined with a synonym. However, these definitions
are not adequate for research.
Operational definitions: in terms of specific testing or measurement criteria with
empirical references. The definition must specify characteristics and how they have to
be observed in order that everyone is able to classify the object in the same way.
Variables: synonym for a construct! As constructs cannot be observed (like concepts) but
they must be converted to hypotheses and tested.
dichotomous (discreet) variables (categorical) only two variables, reflecting the presence or
absence of something (male/female = binary).
Continuous variables may take on values within a given range or an infinite set.
, Independent variable (the reason) causes the dependent variable to occur (the effect)
Moderating / interacting variable is a second independent variable that is included
because it is believed it has a significant contribution/contingent effect on the original IV –
DV relationship. The effect of the MV is the surplus of the combined occurrence: “training
(IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)”
Intervening/mediating variable (IVV) a conceptual mechanism through which the IV and
the MV might affect the DV: “training (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV) by increasing
the Skill level (IVV).
IV, MV or IVV are influencing factors that that have effect on a given situation (DV). However,
Control Variables (CV) are variables that have little or no influence/effect on the given
situation (weather conditions, gender, age). These CV’s are included in researches because it
might influence the DV, but we consider the CV as irrelevant for the investigation and does
not affect the relationship between the DV and IV.
confounding variable (CFV) something that influences that where you are interested in. it
influences both the IV and the DV. For example, amount of rain (CFV) may affect the mood of
a waiter (IV) and the amount of tips they get from the guests (DV) (it’s a third variable why
something happens). You include control variables in a research to make sure it is not a CFV.
1.8
Hypotheses guide the direction of the study.
Descriptive hypotheses Propositions that typically state the existence, size, form or
distribution of some variable. “Floris (case) has a higher than average achievement
motivation (variable)”.
Relational hypotheses describe a relation between two variables with respect to a
particular case. “Foreign (variable) cars are perceived by Floris (case) to be of better quality
(variable) than domestic cars”.
Correlational hypotheses: The variables occur together in some specific manner without
implying that one causes the other.
Explanatory (causal) hypotheses: the existence of / a change in one variable causes a change
in the other variable (IV – DV).
1.9
A theory is a set of concepts, definitions and propositions that are advanced to explain and
predict phenomena (facts). A hypothesis is a statement relating two variables, while the
theory provides the rationale why those two variables are related. It is something that has
been investigated what we know it’s true. Theory is already investigated (we know it’s true),
hypotheses are not investigated yet. Hypotheses are built on existing theories.
Theories are explanations and Models are representations.
Chapter 2- Research process and proposal
1. The research proposal
1.1
Business research = a systematic examination with the objective to provide the information
that will solve managerial problems.
Management dilemma = problem/opportunity that requires a management decision.
Different types of study:
- Reporting To provide an account or summation of data, or to generate statistics (from
available information sources). little inference or little conclusion drawing.
- Descriptive tries to discover answers to the questions who, what, how, when, where.
Describing/ defining a subject, often by creating a profile of a group of problems, people or
events (why occur events and why do the variables interact in the way they do?). Observing
an event or characteristics (research variables). No powerful inferences.
- Explanatory Goes one step beyond descriptive, it gives answers on why and how
questions. To explain the reasons why the phenomenon occurs (theories/hypotheses to
account for the forces that caused a certain phenomenon to occur).
Predictive If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has occurred, it is
desirable to be able to predict when and in what situation such an event might reoccur
(economic predictions for example). This type of study calls for a high level of inference.
Once we can explain and predict a phenomenon, we would like to control it being able to
replicate a scenario and dictate a particular outcome is the objective of control. This is only
possible if the researcher could account for and control all other variables influencing the
applications.
1.3
Research is always problem-solving based! All research should provide an answer to a
question.
Problem-solving can be generated either by a negative circumstance (problem) or an
opportunity for a company.
Applied research = conducted in order to reveal answers to specific questions related to
action, performance or policy needs and has a practical problem-solving nature.
Pure research and Basic research = are also problem-solving based, but in a different sense.
Purpose is to solve perplexing questions/problems of a theoretical nature that have little
direct impact on action, performance or policy decisions.
1.4
Good research generates dependable data (which is derived through professionally
conducted practices and that can be used and relied upon). Good research follows the
structure of the scientific method (page 12).
1.5
Research is reasoning (theory) and observations (data/information).
Two most research philosophies:
Positivism adopted from the natural science.
, Interpretivism / Phenomenology Interpretivist hold the view that the social world
cannot be understood by applying research principles adopted from the natural
sciences. Interpretivists research social phenomena by making sense of how people
interpret the social world.
Positivism vs Interpretivism
Basic principles Positivism Interpretivism/phenomenology
View of the world: External and objective Socially constructed and
subjective meaning by people
Involvement of researcher: Independent (role of an Part of what is being observed
objective analyst). and interpretation is socially
constructed.
Researcher’s influence: Value-free Driven by human interest
Assumptions
Research/observations are? Objective, quantitative, facts Subjective interpretations of
meanings
How is knowledge developed? Reducing phenomena to the researcher relies on
simple elements representing multiple sources and different
general laws methods to collect information
on the phenomena to detect
explanations beyond the
current knowledge
Usually larger samples Smaller sample sizes
Reasoning approach using an inductive reasoning using a deductive reasoning.
(multiple answers)
Realism is a research philosophy sharing principles of positivism and interpretivism.
- The believe that social sciences can rely on the research approach dominant in
the natural sciences (like positivism) it accepts the existence of a reality
independent of human beliefs and behaviour.
- The believe that understanding people and their behaviour requires
acknowledgement of the subjectivity inherent to humans there are social
processes and forces beyond the control of humans, which affects ours beliefs
and behaviour.
1.6
characteristic of scientific research is theory; however, the place where you introduce theory
can differ Start with theory in order to test it or solve a theoretical contradiction or close
with theoretical considerations drawn from your observations. The position (role) of theory
in research is linked to two different reasoning approaches:
Deduction:
- Form of inference that the conclusion must necessarily follow from the reason given
,(conclusion represent proof).
- To be correct, it must be both true and valid:
- Reasons given for the conclusion must agree with the real world (true).
- The conclusion must necessarily follow from the principles (valid). A deduction is
valid if the conclusion is impossibly false if the principles (reasons) are true.
- Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypothesis is capable of explaining
the fact. There is a strong relationship between reasons and conclusions.
Induction:
- To draw a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence.
- The conclusion explains the facts, and the facts support the conclusion.
- Although one inductive conclusion (hypothesis) explains a fact, other conclusions can also
explain this fact.
- Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask; ‘Why is this?’
1.7
Concepts and constructs are theoretical, variables are measurable.
Concepts: Something you want to measure in a research. Culturally shared and accepted
with a proper definition. A collection of meanings/characteristics associated with certain
events, objects, conditions, situations and behaviours het classifiseren van bepaalde
waardes zoals height, width and dept, time period (weekly, monthly or annually) (labels to
designate words).
Most concepts are objective concepts that we can all visualize, we can all agree to the
meaning of them (dog, table, electric, money). Concrete and easily to measure.
Construct: specifically developed for research purposes.
An abstract concept which is difficult to visualize (personality, motivation, leadership). A
construct is build up by combining simpler concepts and the meaning is not percepted the
same by everyone Language skills (construct) = vocabulary, syntax and spelling (concepts).
In research, we must measure concepts and constructs, and this requires definitions
(meaning of/insight what a concept/construct really is):
Dictionary definitions: a concept defined with a synonym. However, these definitions
are not adequate for research.
Operational definitions: in terms of specific testing or measurement criteria with
empirical references. The definition must specify characteristics and how they have to
be observed in order that everyone is able to classify the object in the same way.
Variables: synonym for a construct! As constructs cannot be observed (like concepts) but
they must be converted to hypotheses and tested.
dichotomous (discreet) variables (categorical) only two variables, reflecting the presence or
absence of something (male/female = binary).
Continuous variables may take on values within a given range or an infinite set.
, Independent variable (the reason) causes the dependent variable to occur (the effect)
Moderating / interacting variable is a second independent variable that is included
because it is believed it has a significant contribution/contingent effect on the original IV –
DV relationship. The effect of the MV is the surplus of the combined occurrence: “training
(IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)”
Intervening/mediating variable (IVV) a conceptual mechanism through which the IV and
the MV might affect the DV: “training (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV) by increasing
the Skill level (IVV).
IV, MV or IVV are influencing factors that that have effect on a given situation (DV). However,
Control Variables (CV) are variables that have little or no influence/effect on the given
situation (weather conditions, gender, age). These CV’s are included in researches because it
might influence the DV, but we consider the CV as irrelevant for the investigation and does
not affect the relationship between the DV and IV.
confounding variable (CFV) something that influences that where you are interested in. it
influences both the IV and the DV. For example, amount of rain (CFV) may affect the mood of
a waiter (IV) and the amount of tips they get from the guests (DV) (it’s a third variable why
something happens). You include control variables in a research to make sure it is not a CFV.
1.8
Hypotheses guide the direction of the study.
Descriptive hypotheses Propositions that typically state the existence, size, form or
distribution of some variable. “Floris (case) has a higher than average achievement
motivation (variable)”.
Relational hypotheses describe a relation between two variables with respect to a
particular case. “Foreign (variable) cars are perceived by Floris (case) to be of better quality
(variable) than domestic cars”.
Correlational hypotheses: The variables occur together in some specific manner without
implying that one causes the other.
Explanatory (causal) hypotheses: the existence of / a change in one variable causes a change
in the other variable (IV – DV).
1.9
A theory is a set of concepts, definitions and propositions that are advanced to explain and
predict phenomena (facts). A hypothesis is a statement relating two variables, while the
theory provides the rationale why those two variables are related. It is something that has
been investigated what we know it’s true. Theory is already investigated (we know it’s true),
hypotheses are not investigated yet. Hypotheses are built on existing theories.
Theories are explanations and Models are representations.
Chapter 2- Research process and proposal
1. The research proposal
