Designing effective instruction
Chapter 2: Identifying the Need for Instruction
Is Instruction the Answer?
The purpose of identifying the problem is to determine whether instruction should be part of the solution.
ID’ers can use three different approaches to identify instructional problems: needs assessment, goals analysis
and performance assessment.
Needs assessment
A needs assessment can help us avoid providing too much instruction when it is not necessary.
1. It identifies the needs relevant.
2. It identifies critical needs.
3. Priorities for selecting an intervention.
4. Baseline data to assess the effectiveness.
Types of needs and data sources:
Normative needs
Comparing the target audience against a national standard.
Comparative needs
Comparing the target audience against a peer group.
Felt needs
Improve performance or skill level.
Expressed needs
A felt need turned into action.
Anticipated or Future needs
Identifying changes that will occur in the future.
Critical Incident Needs
Failures that are rare but have significant consequences.
Conducting a needs assessment:
Phase I: Planning Phase II: Collecting data Phase III: Data analysis Phase IV: Final report
Target audience Sample size Analysis Purpose
Strategy Scheduling Prioritization Process
Analysis Results
Participants Action
Goals Analysis
A goals analysis begins with input suggesting a problem
Six Steps of Goal Analysis
1. Identify an aim
2. Set goals
3. Refine goals
4. Rank goals
5. Refine goals again
6. Make a final ranking
,Performance assessment
Mager: An aid to identify performance problems
Rossett: Finding the source of the problem
Rossett and Kalman suggest causes of performance problems:
o Lack of knowledge or skills
o Lack of motivation or incentive [aansporing]
o Environmental factors
o Management factors
o Interpersonal relations
Chapter 13: Using Evaluation to Enhance Programs: Conducting Formative
and Summative Evaluations
A Basic Model for Formative Evaluation
Formative evaluations are used to provide feedback to designers for making course improvements.
Purposes
The first step in conducting the evaluation is to determine its purposes. Why is the evaluation being
conducted?
Audience
An additional part of the initial planning is to determine the intended audience(s) for the evaluation results.
Who are the target recipients of the evaluation results?
Issues
As is the case for designing instruction, specifying objectives provides the foundation for the evaluation process.
What are the major questions/objectives of the evaluation?
Resources
What resources will be needed to conduct the evaluation?
Evidence
In conjunction with identifying resources, careful consideration must be given to the types of evidence that will
be acceptable for addressing the evaluation objectives. What type of data or information will be needed to
answer the evaluation questions?
Data-Gathering Techniques
This step involves making final decisions about the instrumentation and data collection methods to be
employed. Two key factor needs to be weighed: precise measurement versus feasible [uitvoerbaar] or practical
measurement. What methods are needed to collect the evidence needed?
Analysis
How will the evidence collected be analyzed?
Frequency distributions (involve numerical indices)
Frequency graphs or histograms (involve numerical indices)
Descriptive statistics, such as percentages, means, and medians (involve numerical indices)
Listing of actual comments made by respondents (involves impressions)
, Reporting
How, to whom, and when will the results of the evaluation will be reported?
Types of Formative Evaluation
According to Flagg (1990), the most commonly used evaluation approaches can be classified into four
categories: connoisseur-based, decision-oriented, objectives-based, and public relations-inspired studies.
Connoisseur-Based Studies
In which expert opinions are sought.
Decision-Oriented Studies
In which information related to particular questions is gathered.
Objective-Based Studies
In which assessments are made of the degree to which particular objectives are obtained.
Public Relations-Inspired Studies
In which financial support or backing for a project is solicited based on the evaluation findings.
Chapter 3: Types of Learning Characteristics
Types of Learner Characteristics
In initiating a learner analysis, the important task for the designer is to identify those characteristics most
critical to the achievement of the specific training objectives. Henich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino (1999)
suggested that designers initially consider three categories of learner characteristics: general characteristics,
specific entry characteristics, and learning styles. In addition to these three categories, we will also describe five
additional categories: academic information, personal and social characteristics, culturally diverse learners,
learners with disabilities, and adult learners.
General characterstics
Broad identifying variables.
Specific entry characteristics
Prerequisite skills and attitudes that learner must possess to benefit from the training.
One stage precedes [voorafgaand] the design of instruction and determines the entry characteristics
of typical target students or trainees.
The preceding sentence suggests the second stage of design, during which the assessment of specific
entry competencies come directly into play.
Learning Styles
Traits [eigenschappen] that refer to how individuals approach learning tasks and process information. The
limited support for adapting instruction to specific learning styles suggest that designers focus their attention
on other types of data to make design decisions.
Academic Information
, The most feasibly obtainable and frequently used category of information about individual learners.
Personal and Social Characteristics
Might affect the design and delivery of the course. For many instructors, learner motivation is actually
considered to be the most important determinant of success. Learner attitude is different from motivation.
Culturally Diverse Learners
Learners groups may include members of ethnic groups with backgrounds and behaviors that differ markedly
from those of the majority of learners. Five standards for effectively teaching culturally diverse learners have
been proposed by researchers.
1. Engaging in joint productive activity.
2. Developing language and literacy.
3. Making meaning.
4. Teaching complex thinking.
5. Teaching through conversation.
Learners with disabilities
Individuals with physical disabilities and others with learning stabilities. Specialists who are capable of working
with individuals with disabilities should be a part of any instructional-planning team.
Adult Learners
The field of adult education, known as andragogy. The generalizations apply to all learners, it only differs during
planning.
Contextual Analysis
Cognitive science research has found that embedding instruction in a familiar context enhances both student
achievement and student attitudes. Analysis of the instructional context provides rich data for designing real-
world examples and scenarios.
Types of Context
Orienting context
Focuses on learner characteristics, that is, the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the learner brings to the
instruction. But also, goals, perceived utility of instruction, perception of accountability.
Instructional context
Lightning, noise, temperature, seating, equipment, transportation etc.
Transfer context
Application of the knowledge and skills learned. A learner needs the access to the tools and resources,
opportunities and support.
Conducting a Contextual Analysis
The common tools for conducting a contextual analysis include surveys, observations and interviews.
1. Identify factors that might affect your ID plan.
2. Determine and collect the necessary data.
a. Rich data are needed to provide the designer with an accurate picture of the instructional
environment.
b. Consider surveys, observations and interviews.
3. Analyze data
a. The collected data are analyzed to identify environmental factors that will influence the
design and delivery of instruction.
Chapter 2: Identifying the Need for Instruction
Is Instruction the Answer?
The purpose of identifying the problem is to determine whether instruction should be part of the solution.
ID’ers can use three different approaches to identify instructional problems: needs assessment, goals analysis
and performance assessment.
Needs assessment
A needs assessment can help us avoid providing too much instruction when it is not necessary.
1. It identifies the needs relevant.
2. It identifies critical needs.
3. Priorities for selecting an intervention.
4. Baseline data to assess the effectiveness.
Types of needs and data sources:
Normative needs
Comparing the target audience against a national standard.
Comparative needs
Comparing the target audience against a peer group.
Felt needs
Improve performance or skill level.
Expressed needs
A felt need turned into action.
Anticipated or Future needs
Identifying changes that will occur in the future.
Critical Incident Needs
Failures that are rare but have significant consequences.
Conducting a needs assessment:
Phase I: Planning Phase II: Collecting data Phase III: Data analysis Phase IV: Final report
Target audience Sample size Analysis Purpose
Strategy Scheduling Prioritization Process
Analysis Results
Participants Action
Goals Analysis
A goals analysis begins with input suggesting a problem
Six Steps of Goal Analysis
1. Identify an aim
2. Set goals
3. Refine goals
4. Rank goals
5. Refine goals again
6. Make a final ranking
,Performance assessment
Mager: An aid to identify performance problems
Rossett: Finding the source of the problem
Rossett and Kalman suggest causes of performance problems:
o Lack of knowledge or skills
o Lack of motivation or incentive [aansporing]
o Environmental factors
o Management factors
o Interpersonal relations
Chapter 13: Using Evaluation to Enhance Programs: Conducting Formative
and Summative Evaluations
A Basic Model for Formative Evaluation
Formative evaluations are used to provide feedback to designers for making course improvements.
Purposes
The first step in conducting the evaluation is to determine its purposes. Why is the evaluation being
conducted?
Audience
An additional part of the initial planning is to determine the intended audience(s) for the evaluation results.
Who are the target recipients of the evaluation results?
Issues
As is the case for designing instruction, specifying objectives provides the foundation for the evaluation process.
What are the major questions/objectives of the evaluation?
Resources
What resources will be needed to conduct the evaluation?
Evidence
In conjunction with identifying resources, careful consideration must be given to the types of evidence that will
be acceptable for addressing the evaluation objectives. What type of data or information will be needed to
answer the evaluation questions?
Data-Gathering Techniques
This step involves making final decisions about the instrumentation and data collection methods to be
employed. Two key factor needs to be weighed: precise measurement versus feasible [uitvoerbaar] or practical
measurement. What methods are needed to collect the evidence needed?
Analysis
How will the evidence collected be analyzed?
Frequency distributions (involve numerical indices)
Frequency graphs or histograms (involve numerical indices)
Descriptive statistics, such as percentages, means, and medians (involve numerical indices)
Listing of actual comments made by respondents (involves impressions)
, Reporting
How, to whom, and when will the results of the evaluation will be reported?
Types of Formative Evaluation
According to Flagg (1990), the most commonly used evaluation approaches can be classified into four
categories: connoisseur-based, decision-oriented, objectives-based, and public relations-inspired studies.
Connoisseur-Based Studies
In which expert opinions are sought.
Decision-Oriented Studies
In which information related to particular questions is gathered.
Objective-Based Studies
In which assessments are made of the degree to which particular objectives are obtained.
Public Relations-Inspired Studies
In which financial support or backing for a project is solicited based on the evaluation findings.
Chapter 3: Types of Learning Characteristics
Types of Learner Characteristics
In initiating a learner analysis, the important task for the designer is to identify those characteristics most
critical to the achievement of the specific training objectives. Henich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino (1999)
suggested that designers initially consider three categories of learner characteristics: general characteristics,
specific entry characteristics, and learning styles. In addition to these three categories, we will also describe five
additional categories: academic information, personal and social characteristics, culturally diverse learners,
learners with disabilities, and adult learners.
General characterstics
Broad identifying variables.
Specific entry characteristics
Prerequisite skills and attitudes that learner must possess to benefit from the training.
One stage precedes [voorafgaand] the design of instruction and determines the entry characteristics
of typical target students or trainees.
The preceding sentence suggests the second stage of design, during which the assessment of specific
entry competencies come directly into play.
Learning Styles
Traits [eigenschappen] that refer to how individuals approach learning tasks and process information. The
limited support for adapting instruction to specific learning styles suggest that designers focus their attention
on other types of data to make design decisions.
Academic Information
, The most feasibly obtainable and frequently used category of information about individual learners.
Personal and Social Characteristics
Might affect the design and delivery of the course. For many instructors, learner motivation is actually
considered to be the most important determinant of success. Learner attitude is different from motivation.
Culturally Diverse Learners
Learners groups may include members of ethnic groups with backgrounds and behaviors that differ markedly
from those of the majority of learners. Five standards for effectively teaching culturally diverse learners have
been proposed by researchers.
1. Engaging in joint productive activity.
2. Developing language and literacy.
3. Making meaning.
4. Teaching complex thinking.
5. Teaching through conversation.
Learners with disabilities
Individuals with physical disabilities and others with learning stabilities. Specialists who are capable of working
with individuals with disabilities should be a part of any instructional-planning team.
Adult Learners
The field of adult education, known as andragogy. The generalizations apply to all learners, it only differs during
planning.
Contextual Analysis
Cognitive science research has found that embedding instruction in a familiar context enhances both student
achievement and student attitudes. Analysis of the instructional context provides rich data for designing real-
world examples and scenarios.
Types of Context
Orienting context
Focuses on learner characteristics, that is, the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the learner brings to the
instruction. But also, goals, perceived utility of instruction, perception of accountability.
Instructional context
Lightning, noise, temperature, seating, equipment, transportation etc.
Transfer context
Application of the knowledge and skills learned. A learner needs the access to the tools and resources,
opportunities and support.
Conducting a Contextual Analysis
The common tools for conducting a contextual analysis include surveys, observations and interviews.
1. Identify factors that might affect your ID plan.
2. Determine and collect the necessary data.
a. Rich data are needed to provide the designer with an accurate picture of the instructional
environment.
b. Consider surveys, observations and interviews.
3. Analyze data
a. The collected data are analyzed to identify environmental factors that will influence the
design and delivery of instruction.
