Overview of Aflatoxins on health of Human Beings and Animals,
control strategies to avoid contamination In Food & Feed
Abstract
Aflatoxin is the most significant type of mycotoxins that is secondary metabolite,
carcinogenic and toxic in nature. It has impose impact on billion dollars of world’s economy. It
also has negative impacts on health of humans and animals. It contaminate the agricultural crops
and by consuming these crops animals and humans come in contact with these toxins which lead
to their death. Wheat, rice, Maize are the main staple foods which give calories to organisms but
unfortunately by various factors these crops have been contaminated with toxins. Among
aflatoxins, B1, B2, G1, and G2 types are most poisonous and lethal for organisms of the country.
These are produced by over 25 species of Aspergillus fungi. Warm and humid climate of
Pakistan is favorable for fungi growth. Improper storage practices, lack of regulatory limits,
transportation and mishandling of crops at pre and post-harvest stages and repeatedly cultivation
of crops are responsible for this contamination. For human or animal consumption, Mostly
countries have set a tolerable level of aflatoxin contamination in their food and agriculture
commodities is (2–20 ppb). Furthermore, different strategies have been implemented to avoid
such contamination. For combat this issue, bio-pesticide has been used in many countries.
Keywords: Mycotoxin Contamination, Aflatoxin, Human and Animal Health, Tolerable-
limits, Aspergillus, Preventive strategies & bio-pesticide
Key Contribution: The purpose of this review is to provide an overview on mycotoxin
contamination on staple crops of Pakistan which impose hazardous impacts on health of human
beings and animals. In addition to this, it is necessary to control this contamination to save health
and economy of our country by adopting helpful strategies and by following tolerable ranges of
contamination.
1- Introduction
For the health and wellbeing of human beings, the major cereal crops of countries play a vital
role. In developed countries throughout the world, cereals are the most important source of
energy (Awika, 2011). We are deriving about 30% of our regular calories from cereals. Pakistan
ranked 7th position in production of wheat i-e 25.07 million tons (Iqbal et al., 2020). Maize (Zea
mays L.) is also a significant multipurpose crop of Pakistan. It is 3rd significant cereal food crop
after wheat and rice in Pakistan (Rafiq et al., 2010). It is used for several purposes such as in wet
milling industry, for human food (especially in hilly and mountainous areas), and also for of
livestock’s feed purpose (Khatoon et al., 2010). Corn, wheat, maize and rice are the main staple
food of Pakistan. But unfortunately our extreme weather conditions, storage practices, un-
awareness of culturing practices, farm level during handling, transportation and repeated ways of
, traditional cropping are the factors of fungal attack and toxins in crops of food chain
(http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity). The significant class of
food toxins are the mycotoxins. These are the secondary metabolites i-e some major fungi
producer mycotoxins are recognized as Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium that are
responsible for the production of aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol (Iqbal et al., 2016 & Ji et al.,
2018). According to the various studies, at the molecular level, deoxynivalenol binds to the
ribosome and inhibits protein synthesis which in turn destructs the normal functioning of cell
(Pestka & Smolinski, 2005). With the exposure of low doses of DON, toxic effects emerge such
as dysfunction of immune system and impairment in growth. Moreover, with the exposure of
lethal dose of DON, various effects exert such as diarrhea, hemorrhage, leukocytosis, and shock-
like death (Pestka, 2005). Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus
and Aspergillus nominus and these mycotoxins are teratogenic metabolites, potent carcinogenic,
immune-suppressive, and mutagenic in nature (Alam et al., 2010). They are affecting a variety of
organisms, their health and also animals due to their presence in their feed. The most significant
aflatoxin is the Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) which affects the human health and also the economy of
country as it effects the international trade of food and animal feeds between different countries
throughout the world (Shah et al., 2010). Aflatoxins exposure to human beings may be due to
toxin contaminated foods or by the ingestion of the animals that are previously exposed to
Aflatoxins (Leong et al., 2012). In both human beings and animals, the carcinogenic dietary
exposure to AFB1 & AFB2 are responsible for the substantial health problems which includes
impaired kidney and liver functions, feeding efficiency & slowing development, immune
systems weakening, and some other hazardous disorders (Ajmal et al., 2022).
In every local population, strict laws and regulations are imposed for AFs & DON mycotoxins in
wheat and wheat based products that are used for the consumption of human beings and animals
in order to avoid the health hazard (Binder et al., 2007). In the United States of America (USA),
for aflatoxins, the highest tolerable level has been set to 20 µg/kg. While, in the European Union,
the total Aflatoxins i-e AFB1 & AFB2 level is not further than 4 µg/kg and 2 µg/kg, respectively
that is consider as a strictest law especially for any product used for animals and human beings
(Ali et al., 2016). For permissible limit of DON in raw barley, maize and wheat Codex
Alimentarius Commission (CAC) has been implemented the limit of 2 mg/kg. While on other
hand, the European Union for different types of unprocessed wheat and oat for different
communities has been established the limit of 2000 μg/kg. Same as it is, for raw or those cereals
which would be unprocessed, there is the permissible and legal limit of 1000 μg/kg has been
established, While, for those foodstuffs that are intended for consumers and dry pasta a limit of
750 μg/kg has been established and for breakfast cereal proposed for the consumption of baby
food and snacks, there is a legal limit i-e 200 μg/kg (European Commission EC 2006). Generally
1000 μg/kg of aflatoxin concentration in food is estimated to be responsible for the cause of
aflatoxin toxicity in humans (WHO, 2021). While for the animals, the tolerable range of
aflatoxicosis is 50–300 μg/kg (Shabeer et al., 2022).
Despite of the hazardous effects of mycotoxins such as aflatoxins (AFB1 & AFB2) on health of
animals and human beings, it is found that there is repeatedly contamination of these toxins in
Pakistani food and feed commodities. This problem of Pakistan is posing a serious hazard to the
control strategies to avoid contamination In Food & Feed
Abstract
Aflatoxin is the most significant type of mycotoxins that is secondary metabolite,
carcinogenic and toxic in nature. It has impose impact on billion dollars of world’s economy. It
also has negative impacts on health of humans and animals. It contaminate the agricultural crops
and by consuming these crops animals and humans come in contact with these toxins which lead
to their death. Wheat, rice, Maize are the main staple foods which give calories to organisms but
unfortunately by various factors these crops have been contaminated with toxins. Among
aflatoxins, B1, B2, G1, and G2 types are most poisonous and lethal for organisms of the country.
These are produced by over 25 species of Aspergillus fungi. Warm and humid climate of
Pakistan is favorable for fungi growth. Improper storage practices, lack of regulatory limits,
transportation and mishandling of crops at pre and post-harvest stages and repeatedly cultivation
of crops are responsible for this contamination. For human or animal consumption, Mostly
countries have set a tolerable level of aflatoxin contamination in their food and agriculture
commodities is (2–20 ppb). Furthermore, different strategies have been implemented to avoid
such contamination. For combat this issue, bio-pesticide has been used in many countries.
Keywords: Mycotoxin Contamination, Aflatoxin, Human and Animal Health, Tolerable-
limits, Aspergillus, Preventive strategies & bio-pesticide
Key Contribution: The purpose of this review is to provide an overview on mycotoxin
contamination on staple crops of Pakistan which impose hazardous impacts on health of human
beings and animals. In addition to this, it is necessary to control this contamination to save health
and economy of our country by adopting helpful strategies and by following tolerable ranges of
contamination.
1- Introduction
For the health and wellbeing of human beings, the major cereal crops of countries play a vital
role. In developed countries throughout the world, cereals are the most important source of
energy (Awika, 2011). We are deriving about 30% of our regular calories from cereals. Pakistan
ranked 7th position in production of wheat i-e 25.07 million tons (Iqbal et al., 2020). Maize (Zea
mays L.) is also a significant multipurpose crop of Pakistan. It is 3rd significant cereal food crop
after wheat and rice in Pakistan (Rafiq et al., 2010). It is used for several purposes such as in wet
milling industry, for human food (especially in hilly and mountainous areas), and also for of
livestock’s feed purpose (Khatoon et al., 2010). Corn, wheat, maize and rice are the main staple
food of Pakistan. But unfortunately our extreme weather conditions, storage practices, un-
awareness of culturing practices, farm level during handling, transportation and repeated ways of
, traditional cropping are the factors of fungal attack and toxins in crops of food chain
(http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity). The significant class of
food toxins are the mycotoxins. These are the secondary metabolites i-e some major fungi
producer mycotoxins are recognized as Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium that are
responsible for the production of aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol (Iqbal et al., 2016 & Ji et al.,
2018). According to the various studies, at the molecular level, deoxynivalenol binds to the
ribosome and inhibits protein synthesis which in turn destructs the normal functioning of cell
(Pestka & Smolinski, 2005). With the exposure of low doses of DON, toxic effects emerge such
as dysfunction of immune system and impairment in growth. Moreover, with the exposure of
lethal dose of DON, various effects exert such as diarrhea, hemorrhage, leukocytosis, and shock-
like death (Pestka, 2005). Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus
and Aspergillus nominus and these mycotoxins are teratogenic metabolites, potent carcinogenic,
immune-suppressive, and mutagenic in nature (Alam et al., 2010). They are affecting a variety of
organisms, their health and also animals due to their presence in their feed. The most significant
aflatoxin is the Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) which affects the human health and also the economy of
country as it effects the international trade of food and animal feeds between different countries
throughout the world (Shah et al., 2010). Aflatoxins exposure to human beings may be due to
toxin contaminated foods or by the ingestion of the animals that are previously exposed to
Aflatoxins (Leong et al., 2012). In both human beings and animals, the carcinogenic dietary
exposure to AFB1 & AFB2 are responsible for the substantial health problems which includes
impaired kidney and liver functions, feeding efficiency & slowing development, immune
systems weakening, and some other hazardous disorders (Ajmal et al., 2022).
In every local population, strict laws and regulations are imposed for AFs & DON mycotoxins in
wheat and wheat based products that are used for the consumption of human beings and animals
in order to avoid the health hazard (Binder et al., 2007). In the United States of America (USA),
for aflatoxins, the highest tolerable level has been set to 20 µg/kg. While, in the European Union,
the total Aflatoxins i-e AFB1 & AFB2 level is not further than 4 µg/kg and 2 µg/kg, respectively
that is consider as a strictest law especially for any product used for animals and human beings
(Ali et al., 2016). For permissible limit of DON in raw barley, maize and wheat Codex
Alimentarius Commission (CAC) has been implemented the limit of 2 mg/kg. While on other
hand, the European Union for different types of unprocessed wheat and oat for different
communities has been established the limit of 2000 μg/kg. Same as it is, for raw or those cereals
which would be unprocessed, there is the permissible and legal limit of 1000 μg/kg has been
established, While, for those foodstuffs that are intended for consumers and dry pasta a limit of
750 μg/kg has been established and for breakfast cereal proposed for the consumption of baby
food and snacks, there is a legal limit i-e 200 μg/kg (European Commission EC 2006). Generally
1000 μg/kg of aflatoxin concentration in food is estimated to be responsible for the cause of
aflatoxin toxicity in humans (WHO, 2021). While for the animals, the tolerable range of
aflatoxicosis is 50–300 μg/kg (Shabeer et al., 2022).
Despite of the hazardous effects of mycotoxins such as aflatoxins (AFB1 & AFB2) on health of
animals and human beings, it is found that there is repeatedly contamination of these toxins in
Pakistani food and feed commodities. This problem of Pakistan is posing a serious hazard to the
