PSYCH 147 REVIEWER
CHAPTER 7: LONG-TERM MEMORY: ENCODING AND
RETRIEVAL
encoding- process of acquiring information and transferring it
into LTM
coding- to refer to the form in which information is represented
*We will use the term coding to refer to the form in which
information is represented. For example, a word can be coded
visually or by its sound or by its meaning. We will use the term
encoding to refer to the process used to get information into
LTM. For example, a word can be encoded by repeating it over
and over, by thinking of other words that rhyme with it, or by
using it in a sentence.
retrieval- process of transferring information from LTM to
working memory
ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION INTO LONG-TERM
MEMORY
rehearsal—repeating information over and over
Maintenance Rehearsal and Elaborative Rehearsal
maintenance rehearsal- helps maintain information in STM/ Forming Visual Images
WM, but it is not an effective way of transferring information -Gordon Bower and David Winzenz (1970) decided to test
into long-term memory. whether using visual imagery—“images in the head” that
-When you rehearse a telephone number in this way, you are connect words visually—can create connections that enhance
usually just repeating the numbers without any consideration of memory. They used a procedure called paired-associate
meaning or making connections with other information. learning, in which a list of word pairs is presented. Later, the
elaborative rehearsal- is more effective at transferring first word of each pair is presented, and the participant’s task is
information into LTM; it occurs when you think about the to remember the word it was paired with
meaning of an item or make connections between the item and -participants who had created images remembered more than
something you know. twice as many words as the participants who had just repeated
Levels-of-Processing Theory the word pairs
levels-of-processing theory- memory depends on how Linking Words to Yourself
information is encoded, with “deeper” processing resulting in self-reference effect- Memory is better if you are asked to
better encoding and retrieval than “shallow” processing. In relate a word to yourself.
other words, memory depends on how information is Generating Information
programmed into the mind. generation effect- Generating material yourself, rather than
The Basics of Levels of Processing passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention
-According to levels-of-processing theory, depth of processing Organizing Information
is determined by the nature of the task during encoding. -The memory system also uses organization to access
-memory is superior when a meaningful connection has been information.
made between an item and something else. Thus, memory for -One reason for this result is that remembering words in a
words is better when the words are processed by relating them particular category may serve as a retrieval cue—a word or
to other knowledge other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored
-memory depends on the depth of processing that an item in memory—for other words in that category.
receives. They describe depth of processing by distinguishing Testing
between shallow processing and deep processing. -recent research shows that being tested on the material to be
Shallow processing- involves little attention to meaning. remembered results in better memory than rereading it.
Shallow processing occurs when attention is focused on -This enhanced performance due to testing is called the testing
physical features, such as whether a word is printed in effect. It has been demonstrated in a large number of
lowercase or capital letters, or the number of vowels in a word experiments, both in the laboratory and in classroom settings
-also occurs during maintenance rehearsal, in which an item is RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT OF MEMORY
repeated to keep it in memory but without considering its Retrieval Cues
meaning or its connection with anything else. retrieval cues- words or other stimuli that help us remember
Deep processing involves close attention, focusing on an information stored in our memory
item’s meaning and relating it to something else. Considering -location as a retrieval cue- office served as a retrieval cue for
how an item might be useful in a particular situation or creating remembering what I wanted to take to class
an image of the item in relation to another item would create -music, smell
deep processing. free recall- a participant is simply asked to recall stimuli
-This way of processing an item occurs during elaborative cued recall, the participant is presented with retrieval cues to
rehearsal and, according to levels-of-processing theory, results aid in recall of the previously experienced stimuli
in better memory than shallow processing -retrieval cues (the three words) provide extremely effective
The Difficulty in Defining Depth of Processing information for retrieving memories, but that retrieval cues are
-What about using a word in a sentence versus deciding how significantly more effective when they are created by the person
useful an object might be on a desert island. Which of these whose memory is being tested.
results in deeper processing? Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval
-This is called circular reasoning, and it occurs because depth -Retrieval can be increased by matching the conditions at
of processing has not been defined independently of memory retrieval to the conditions that existed at encoding.
performance. We can’t use memory performance to determine (1) encoding specificity— matching the context in which
depth of processing and then turn around and use depth of encoding and retrieval occur (underwater vs land example)
processing to predict memory performance (2) state-dependent learning— matching the internal mood
Research Showing That Encoding Influences Retrieval present during encoding and retrieval (sad ka nag-aral, sad
-The basic idea in all of these experiments is to vary encoding ka din sumagot)
and measure how retrieval (memory performance) is affected. (3) transfer-appropriate processing— matching the task
CHAPTER 7: LONG-TERM MEMORY: ENCODING AND
RETRIEVAL
encoding- process of acquiring information and transferring it
into LTM
coding- to refer to the form in which information is represented
*We will use the term coding to refer to the form in which
information is represented. For example, a word can be coded
visually or by its sound or by its meaning. We will use the term
encoding to refer to the process used to get information into
LTM. For example, a word can be encoded by repeating it over
and over, by thinking of other words that rhyme with it, or by
using it in a sentence.
retrieval- process of transferring information from LTM to
working memory
ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION INTO LONG-TERM
MEMORY
rehearsal—repeating information over and over
Maintenance Rehearsal and Elaborative Rehearsal
maintenance rehearsal- helps maintain information in STM/ Forming Visual Images
WM, but it is not an effective way of transferring information -Gordon Bower and David Winzenz (1970) decided to test
into long-term memory. whether using visual imagery—“images in the head” that
-When you rehearse a telephone number in this way, you are connect words visually—can create connections that enhance
usually just repeating the numbers without any consideration of memory. They used a procedure called paired-associate
meaning or making connections with other information. learning, in which a list of word pairs is presented. Later, the
elaborative rehearsal- is more effective at transferring first word of each pair is presented, and the participant’s task is
information into LTM; it occurs when you think about the to remember the word it was paired with
meaning of an item or make connections between the item and -participants who had created images remembered more than
something you know. twice as many words as the participants who had just repeated
Levels-of-Processing Theory the word pairs
levels-of-processing theory- memory depends on how Linking Words to Yourself
information is encoded, with “deeper” processing resulting in self-reference effect- Memory is better if you are asked to
better encoding and retrieval than “shallow” processing. In relate a word to yourself.
other words, memory depends on how information is Generating Information
programmed into the mind. generation effect- Generating material yourself, rather than
The Basics of Levels of Processing passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention
-According to levels-of-processing theory, depth of processing Organizing Information
is determined by the nature of the task during encoding. -The memory system also uses organization to access
-memory is superior when a meaningful connection has been information.
made between an item and something else. Thus, memory for -One reason for this result is that remembering words in a
words is better when the words are processed by relating them particular category may serve as a retrieval cue—a word or
to other knowledge other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored
-memory depends on the depth of processing that an item in memory—for other words in that category.
receives. They describe depth of processing by distinguishing Testing
between shallow processing and deep processing. -recent research shows that being tested on the material to be
Shallow processing- involves little attention to meaning. remembered results in better memory than rereading it.
Shallow processing occurs when attention is focused on -This enhanced performance due to testing is called the testing
physical features, such as whether a word is printed in effect. It has been demonstrated in a large number of
lowercase or capital letters, or the number of vowels in a word experiments, both in the laboratory and in classroom settings
-also occurs during maintenance rehearsal, in which an item is RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT OF MEMORY
repeated to keep it in memory but without considering its Retrieval Cues
meaning or its connection with anything else. retrieval cues- words or other stimuli that help us remember
Deep processing involves close attention, focusing on an information stored in our memory
item’s meaning and relating it to something else. Considering -location as a retrieval cue- office served as a retrieval cue for
how an item might be useful in a particular situation or creating remembering what I wanted to take to class
an image of the item in relation to another item would create -music, smell
deep processing. free recall- a participant is simply asked to recall stimuli
-This way of processing an item occurs during elaborative cued recall, the participant is presented with retrieval cues to
rehearsal and, according to levels-of-processing theory, results aid in recall of the previously experienced stimuli
in better memory than shallow processing -retrieval cues (the three words) provide extremely effective
The Difficulty in Defining Depth of Processing information for retrieving memories, but that retrieval cues are
-What about using a word in a sentence versus deciding how significantly more effective when they are created by the person
useful an object might be on a desert island. Which of these whose memory is being tested.
results in deeper processing? Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval
-This is called circular reasoning, and it occurs because depth -Retrieval can be increased by matching the conditions at
of processing has not been defined independently of memory retrieval to the conditions that existed at encoding.
performance. We can’t use memory performance to determine (1) encoding specificity— matching the context in which
depth of processing and then turn around and use depth of encoding and retrieval occur (underwater vs land example)
processing to predict memory performance (2) state-dependent learning— matching the internal mood
Research Showing That Encoding Influences Retrieval present during encoding and retrieval (sad ka nag-aral, sad
-The basic idea in all of these experiments is to vary encoding ka din sumagot)
and measure how retrieval (memory performance) is affected. (3) transfer-appropriate processing— matching the task
