Research Methods Resume
Module 1: Science and Psychology
Some of the more popular research areas within the discipline of psychology:
• Psychobiology (Combines biology and psychology).
• Cognition (Study the mind).
• Human Development (Research on human physical, social and cognitive development).
• Social Psychology (How we view and affect one another).
• Psychotherapy (Research to evaluate psychotherapies).
Sources of knowledge:
• Superstition and intuition
o Knowledge via superstition: Acquiring knowledge based on subjective feelings,
belief in chance or belief in magical events. They represent a means of gaining
knowledge that is neither reliable nor valid.
o Knowledge via intuition: We have knowledge of something without being
consciously aware of where it came from. (e.g., “I don’t know, it’s just a gut feeling).
• Authority
o Knowledge via authority: When we accept what a respected or famous person tells
us. We need to question “authoritative” sources of knowledge and develop and
attitude of skepticism so that we don’t blindly accept whatever we hear.
• Tenacity
o Knowledge via tenacity: involves hearing a piece of information so often that you
begin to believe it is true and then, despite evidence to the contrary, cling stubbornly
to that belief.
• Rationalism
o Knowledge via Rationalism: Involves logical reasoning. With this approach, ideas are
precisely stated and logical rules are applied to arrive at a reasoned and sound
conclusion. Logic deals only with the form of the syllogism and not its content.
• Empiricism
o Knowledge via empiricism: Involves gaining knowledge through objective
observation and the experiences of the senses. (e.g., “I believe nothing until I see it
with my own eyes”). We need to use rationalism together with empiricism to make
sure that our observations are logical.
• Science
o Knowledge via science: involves a merger of rationalism and empiricism. Scientists
collect data and test hypotheses with these data. A hypothesis is a prediction
regarding the outcome of a study. Often the prediction concerns the relationship
between the two variables (a variable is an event or behavior that has at least two
values). In science, the goal of testing hypotheses is to arrive at or to test a theory,
which is an organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain
phenomena and how they are related.
,Skeptic: A person who questions the validity, authenticity or truth of something purportedly factual.
Being a skeptic means that you don’t blindly accept any new idea being promoted at the time.
Being a skeptic and using the scientific method involve applying three important criteria that help
define science:
• Systematic Empiricism: Simply observing a series of events doesn’t lead to scientific
knowledge. The observations must be made systematically to test a hypothesis and to
develop or refute a theory. (e.g, if a researcher is interested in the relationship between
vitamin C and the incidence of colds, she doesn’t simply ask people haphazardly whether
they take vitamin C and how many colds they have had. = empirical approach. Instead, the
researcher might design a study to assess the effect of vitamin C on colds = Systematic
Empiricism).
• Public Verification: The research is presented to the public in such a way that it can be
observed, replicated, criticized and tested for veracity by others.
• Empirically Solvable Problems: Questions that are potentially answerable by means of
currently available research techniques. (e.g., “Is there life after death” = not an empirical
question and can’t be tested scientifically).
o Principle of falsifiability: a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is
possible to refute or disconfirm it. The theory must predict not only what will happen
but also what will not happen.
o Pseudoscience: a claim that appears to be scientific but that actually violates the
criteria of science, is usually irrefutable and is also often confused with science
Basic and applied research
• Basic research: Some psychologists conduct research because they enjoy seeking knowledge
and answering questions.
, • Applied research: Involves the study of psychological issues that have practical significance
and potential solutions. Scientists who conduct applied research are interested in finding an
answer to a question because the answer can be immediately applied.
Scientific research has three basic goals:
• To describe behavior: Description allows us to learn about behavior as well as when it
occurs.
• To predict behavior: allows us to identify the factors that indicate when an event or events
will occur.
• To explain behavior: allows us to identify the causes that determine when and why a
behavior occurs.
Module 2: An introduction to Research Methods.
Advantage descriptive methods: We gain flexibility. Disadvantage: We lose control.
Three types of descriptive methods:
• Observational method: Making observations of human or other animal behavior.
o Naturalistic observation: Observing the behavior of humans or other animals in their
natural habitats.
o Laboratory observation: Observing the behavior of humans or other animal in a
contrived and controlled situation, usually the laboratory.
• Case study method: An in-depth study of one or more individuals.
• Survey method: Questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then describing their
responses.
o Disadvantages: One concern is whether the group of people who participate
(sample) is representative of all the people about whom the study is meant to
generalize (the population). This concern can usually be overcome through random
sampling. A random sample is achieved when through random selection each
member of the population is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample.
o Another concern has to do with the wording of questions.
Predictive (relational) methods
Two methods allow researchers not only to describe behaviors but also to predict from one variable
to another:
• Correlational method: A method that assesses the degree of relationship between two
variables.
o Correlation doesn’t imply causation. A correlation simply means that the two
variables are related in some way. Observing a correlation between two variables
means only that they are related.
o Positive relationship: A relationship between two variables in which an increase in
one is accompanied by an increase in the other.
o Negative relationship: A relationship between two variables in which an increase in
one is accompanied by a decrease in the other.
• Quasi-experimental method: Research that compares naturally occurring groups of
individuals; the variable of interest cannot be manipulated. (e.g, we can examine whether
, alcohol consumption by students in a fraternity or sorority differs from that of students not
in such organizations. The groups studied occur naturally.)
o Subject (participant) variable: A characteristic of the subjects that cannot be
changed.
When using predictive methods, we don’t systematically manipulate the variables of interest. We
can’t conclude a causal relationship. An alternative explanation Is the idea that it is possible some
other uncontrolled, extraneous variable may be responsible for the observed relationship.
Explanatory method
• Experimental method: A research method that allows a researcher to establish a cause-and-
effect relationship through manipulation of a variable and control of the situation.
The minimum requirements needed for an experiment:
The basic premise of experimentation is that the researcher controls as much as possible to
determine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables being studied.
When using the experimental method, the researcher manipulated at least one variable (the
independent variable) and measures at least one variable (the dependent variable). For
comparative purposes the independent variables has to have at least two groups. The control group
serves as the baseline or “standard” condition. The experimental group received the treatment.
Also, researchers need to control the type of subjects in each of the treatment conditions. To gain as
much control as possible and to eliminate as many alternative explanations as possible, they should
use random assignment (Assigning subjects to conditions in such a way that each has the same
probability as all others of being placed in any condition. When using the experimental method, we
try to control (Manipulating the independent variable in an experiment or controlling any other
extraneous variables that could affect the results of a study).
Doing science
Most researchers don’t wholeheartedly accept a conclusion based on only one study, because any
number of problems can occur in a study. For example, control problems, a study may be limited by
the technical equipment available at the time, a single study can’ tell us everything about a theory,
because theories generated through science change.
Proof and disproof
Theories can be supported by the data collected, but obtaining support doesn’t mean a theory is true
in all instances. Proof of a theory is logically impossible. We test a hypothesis by attempting to falsify
Module 1: Science and Psychology
Some of the more popular research areas within the discipline of psychology:
• Psychobiology (Combines biology and psychology).
• Cognition (Study the mind).
• Human Development (Research on human physical, social and cognitive development).
• Social Psychology (How we view and affect one another).
• Psychotherapy (Research to evaluate psychotherapies).
Sources of knowledge:
• Superstition and intuition
o Knowledge via superstition: Acquiring knowledge based on subjective feelings,
belief in chance or belief in magical events. They represent a means of gaining
knowledge that is neither reliable nor valid.
o Knowledge via intuition: We have knowledge of something without being
consciously aware of where it came from. (e.g., “I don’t know, it’s just a gut feeling).
• Authority
o Knowledge via authority: When we accept what a respected or famous person tells
us. We need to question “authoritative” sources of knowledge and develop and
attitude of skepticism so that we don’t blindly accept whatever we hear.
• Tenacity
o Knowledge via tenacity: involves hearing a piece of information so often that you
begin to believe it is true and then, despite evidence to the contrary, cling stubbornly
to that belief.
• Rationalism
o Knowledge via Rationalism: Involves logical reasoning. With this approach, ideas are
precisely stated and logical rules are applied to arrive at a reasoned and sound
conclusion. Logic deals only with the form of the syllogism and not its content.
• Empiricism
o Knowledge via empiricism: Involves gaining knowledge through objective
observation and the experiences of the senses. (e.g., “I believe nothing until I see it
with my own eyes”). We need to use rationalism together with empiricism to make
sure that our observations are logical.
• Science
o Knowledge via science: involves a merger of rationalism and empiricism. Scientists
collect data and test hypotheses with these data. A hypothesis is a prediction
regarding the outcome of a study. Often the prediction concerns the relationship
between the two variables (a variable is an event or behavior that has at least two
values). In science, the goal of testing hypotheses is to arrive at or to test a theory,
which is an organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain
phenomena and how they are related.
,Skeptic: A person who questions the validity, authenticity or truth of something purportedly factual.
Being a skeptic means that you don’t blindly accept any new idea being promoted at the time.
Being a skeptic and using the scientific method involve applying three important criteria that help
define science:
• Systematic Empiricism: Simply observing a series of events doesn’t lead to scientific
knowledge. The observations must be made systematically to test a hypothesis and to
develop or refute a theory. (e.g, if a researcher is interested in the relationship between
vitamin C and the incidence of colds, she doesn’t simply ask people haphazardly whether
they take vitamin C and how many colds they have had. = empirical approach. Instead, the
researcher might design a study to assess the effect of vitamin C on colds = Systematic
Empiricism).
• Public Verification: The research is presented to the public in such a way that it can be
observed, replicated, criticized and tested for veracity by others.
• Empirically Solvable Problems: Questions that are potentially answerable by means of
currently available research techniques. (e.g., “Is there life after death” = not an empirical
question and can’t be tested scientifically).
o Principle of falsifiability: a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is
possible to refute or disconfirm it. The theory must predict not only what will happen
but also what will not happen.
o Pseudoscience: a claim that appears to be scientific but that actually violates the
criteria of science, is usually irrefutable and is also often confused with science
Basic and applied research
• Basic research: Some psychologists conduct research because they enjoy seeking knowledge
and answering questions.
, • Applied research: Involves the study of psychological issues that have practical significance
and potential solutions. Scientists who conduct applied research are interested in finding an
answer to a question because the answer can be immediately applied.
Scientific research has three basic goals:
• To describe behavior: Description allows us to learn about behavior as well as when it
occurs.
• To predict behavior: allows us to identify the factors that indicate when an event or events
will occur.
• To explain behavior: allows us to identify the causes that determine when and why a
behavior occurs.
Module 2: An introduction to Research Methods.
Advantage descriptive methods: We gain flexibility. Disadvantage: We lose control.
Three types of descriptive methods:
• Observational method: Making observations of human or other animal behavior.
o Naturalistic observation: Observing the behavior of humans or other animals in their
natural habitats.
o Laboratory observation: Observing the behavior of humans or other animal in a
contrived and controlled situation, usually the laboratory.
• Case study method: An in-depth study of one or more individuals.
• Survey method: Questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then describing their
responses.
o Disadvantages: One concern is whether the group of people who participate
(sample) is representative of all the people about whom the study is meant to
generalize (the population). This concern can usually be overcome through random
sampling. A random sample is achieved when through random selection each
member of the population is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample.
o Another concern has to do with the wording of questions.
Predictive (relational) methods
Two methods allow researchers not only to describe behaviors but also to predict from one variable
to another:
• Correlational method: A method that assesses the degree of relationship between two
variables.
o Correlation doesn’t imply causation. A correlation simply means that the two
variables are related in some way. Observing a correlation between two variables
means only that they are related.
o Positive relationship: A relationship between two variables in which an increase in
one is accompanied by an increase in the other.
o Negative relationship: A relationship between two variables in which an increase in
one is accompanied by a decrease in the other.
• Quasi-experimental method: Research that compares naturally occurring groups of
individuals; the variable of interest cannot be manipulated. (e.g, we can examine whether
, alcohol consumption by students in a fraternity or sorority differs from that of students not
in such organizations. The groups studied occur naturally.)
o Subject (participant) variable: A characteristic of the subjects that cannot be
changed.
When using predictive methods, we don’t systematically manipulate the variables of interest. We
can’t conclude a causal relationship. An alternative explanation Is the idea that it is possible some
other uncontrolled, extraneous variable may be responsible for the observed relationship.
Explanatory method
• Experimental method: A research method that allows a researcher to establish a cause-and-
effect relationship through manipulation of a variable and control of the situation.
The minimum requirements needed for an experiment:
The basic premise of experimentation is that the researcher controls as much as possible to
determine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables being studied.
When using the experimental method, the researcher manipulated at least one variable (the
independent variable) and measures at least one variable (the dependent variable). For
comparative purposes the independent variables has to have at least two groups. The control group
serves as the baseline or “standard” condition. The experimental group received the treatment.
Also, researchers need to control the type of subjects in each of the treatment conditions. To gain as
much control as possible and to eliminate as many alternative explanations as possible, they should
use random assignment (Assigning subjects to conditions in such a way that each has the same
probability as all others of being placed in any condition. When using the experimental method, we
try to control (Manipulating the independent variable in an experiment or controlling any other
extraneous variables that could affect the results of a study).
Doing science
Most researchers don’t wholeheartedly accept a conclusion based on only one study, because any
number of problems can occur in a study. For example, control problems, a study may be limited by
the technical equipment available at the time, a single study can’ tell us everything about a theory,
because theories generated through science change.
Proof and disproof
Theories can be supported by the data collected, but obtaining support doesn’t mean a theory is true
in all instances. Proof of a theory is logically impossible. We test a hypothesis by attempting to falsify
