Summary Theory and practice of change management
The change process
o Teleological theories: assume that organizations are purposeful and adaptive, and
present change as an unfolding cycle of goal formulation, implementation, evaluation
and learning. Learning is important because it can lead to the modification of goals of
the actions taken to achieve them.
o Dialectical theories: focus on conflicting goals between different interest groups and
explain stability and change in terms of confrontation and the balance of power
between the opposing entities.
o Life cycle theories: assume that change is a process that progresses through a
necessary sequence of stages that are cumulative, in the sense that each stage
contributes a piece to the final outcome, and related – each stage is a necessary
precursor for the next.
o Evolutionary theories: posit that change proceeds through a continuous cycle of
variation, selection and retention. Variations just happen and are not therefore
purposeful but are then selected on the basis of best fit with available resources and
environmental demands. Retention is the perpetuation and maintenance of the
organizational forms that arise from these variations via forces of inertia and
persistence.
The ordering of stages: some theories place more emphasis on the order of the stages than
others.
- Life cycle theories assume that change is a process that progresses through a
necessary sequence of stages that are cumulative, in the sense that each stage
contributes a piece to the final outcome, and related – each stage is a necessary
precursor for the next.
- Teleological theories are less prescriptive about the ordering of stages.
Predetermined versus constructed trajectories: Life cycle and evolutionary theories present
change as a predetermined process that unfolds over time in a prespecified direction. This
kind of change involves incrementally adapting organizational forms in predictable ways.
- Teleological and dialectical theories view change trajectories as constructed, in the
sense that goal, and the steps taken to achieve goals, can be changed at the will of
those involved in the process. According to this perspective, the process is not unduly
constrained by an inherent code or factors external to the immediate system.
The impact of sequence on outcome: although teleological and dialectical theories suggest
that members of a system have considerable freedom to construct change trajectories and
assert that it is possible for them to break away from established routines and intentionally
move the system towards redefined goals, this may not always be easy to achieve in
practice. The nature of the change sequence, whether reactive or self-reinforcing, will affect
the extent to which those leading the change will be able to realize this possibility.
Reactive sequences: in reactive sequences, subsequent event challenge rather than
reinforce earlier events. Negative reactions may produce only minor deviations from the
intended path or they may be so strong that they may delay, transform or block the change.
, Self-reinforcing sequences: self-reinforcing sequences involve positive feedback that
reinforces earlier events and supports the direction of change. Three drivers of self-
reinforcing sequences are increasing returns, a psychological commitment to past decisions,
and cognitive biases. An important feature of self-reinforcing sequences is that early steps in
a particular direction can produce further movement in the same direction and, over time,
can constrain leaders’ freedom to construct and manage an effective change trajectory.
Process model of change:
1. Recognizing the need for change and starting the change process.
2. Diagnosing what needs to be changed and formulating a vision of a preferred future
state.
3. Planning how to intervene in order to achieve the desired change.
4. Implementing plans and reviewing progress.
5. Sustaining the change.
- Throughout the whole process:
6. Leading and managing the people issues.
7. Learning.
Gradualist paradigm = posits that organizations adapt to opportunities and threats by
engaging in a process of continuous incremental change. Their response is evolving, and over
time, these continuous changes cumulate to transform the organization.
Three related process associated with continuous change
o Improvising = facilitates the modification of work practices through mutual
adjustments in which the time gap between planning and implementing narrows
towards the point where planning converges with implementation.
o Translation = refers to the continuous adaption and editing of ideas as they travel
through the organization.
o Learning = involves the continuous revision of shared mental models, which
facilitates a change in the organization’s ability to be responsive.
Punctuated equilibrium paradigm = systems/organizations evolve through the alternation of
periods of equilibrium, in which persistent ‘deep structures’ only permit limited incremental
change, and periods of revolution, in which these deep structures are fundamentally altered.
Deep structure = the fundamental choices an organization makes that determine the basic
activity patterns that maintain its existence. Five key domains of organizational activity:
culture, structure, strategy, power distribution and control systems.
The change process
o Teleological theories: assume that organizations are purposeful and adaptive, and
present change as an unfolding cycle of goal formulation, implementation, evaluation
and learning. Learning is important because it can lead to the modification of goals of
the actions taken to achieve them.
o Dialectical theories: focus on conflicting goals between different interest groups and
explain stability and change in terms of confrontation and the balance of power
between the opposing entities.
o Life cycle theories: assume that change is a process that progresses through a
necessary sequence of stages that are cumulative, in the sense that each stage
contributes a piece to the final outcome, and related – each stage is a necessary
precursor for the next.
o Evolutionary theories: posit that change proceeds through a continuous cycle of
variation, selection and retention. Variations just happen and are not therefore
purposeful but are then selected on the basis of best fit with available resources and
environmental demands. Retention is the perpetuation and maintenance of the
organizational forms that arise from these variations via forces of inertia and
persistence.
The ordering of stages: some theories place more emphasis on the order of the stages than
others.
- Life cycle theories assume that change is a process that progresses through a
necessary sequence of stages that are cumulative, in the sense that each stage
contributes a piece to the final outcome, and related – each stage is a necessary
precursor for the next.
- Teleological theories are less prescriptive about the ordering of stages.
Predetermined versus constructed trajectories: Life cycle and evolutionary theories present
change as a predetermined process that unfolds over time in a prespecified direction. This
kind of change involves incrementally adapting organizational forms in predictable ways.
- Teleological and dialectical theories view change trajectories as constructed, in the
sense that goal, and the steps taken to achieve goals, can be changed at the will of
those involved in the process. According to this perspective, the process is not unduly
constrained by an inherent code or factors external to the immediate system.
The impact of sequence on outcome: although teleological and dialectical theories suggest
that members of a system have considerable freedom to construct change trajectories and
assert that it is possible for them to break away from established routines and intentionally
move the system towards redefined goals, this may not always be easy to achieve in
practice. The nature of the change sequence, whether reactive or self-reinforcing, will affect
the extent to which those leading the change will be able to realize this possibility.
Reactive sequences: in reactive sequences, subsequent event challenge rather than
reinforce earlier events. Negative reactions may produce only minor deviations from the
intended path or they may be so strong that they may delay, transform or block the change.
, Self-reinforcing sequences: self-reinforcing sequences involve positive feedback that
reinforces earlier events and supports the direction of change. Three drivers of self-
reinforcing sequences are increasing returns, a psychological commitment to past decisions,
and cognitive biases. An important feature of self-reinforcing sequences is that early steps in
a particular direction can produce further movement in the same direction and, over time,
can constrain leaders’ freedom to construct and manage an effective change trajectory.
Process model of change:
1. Recognizing the need for change and starting the change process.
2. Diagnosing what needs to be changed and formulating a vision of a preferred future
state.
3. Planning how to intervene in order to achieve the desired change.
4. Implementing plans and reviewing progress.
5. Sustaining the change.
- Throughout the whole process:
6. Leading and managing the people issues.
7. Learning.
Gradualist paradigm = posits that organizations adapt to opportunities and threats by
engaging in a process of continuous incremental change. Their response is evolving, and over
time, these continuous changes cumulate to transform the organization.
Three related process associated with continuous change
o Improvising = facilitates the modification of work practices through mutual
adjustments in which the time gap between planning and implementing narrows
towards the point where planning converges with implementation.
o Translation = refers to the continuous adaption and editing of ideas as they travel
through the organization.
o Learning = involves the continuous revision of shared mental models, which
facilitates a change in the organization’s ability to be responsive.
Punctuated equilibrium paradigm = systems/organizations evolve through the alternation of
periods of equilibrium, in which persistent ‘deep structures’ only permit limited incremental
change, and periods of revolution, in which these deep structures are fundamentally altered.
Deep structure = the fundamental choices an organization makes that determine the basic
activity patterns that maintain its existence. Five key domains of organizational activity:
culture, structure, strategy, power distribution and control systems.
