Ethics and the Future of Business – Fall 2023 – Reflection questions for session 1
1. What is morality, ethics, and an ethical theory?
Ethical theories are the ongoing discussion and study of morality (right or wrong) in different
situations from the perspective of a human-being.
Business ethics is the study of business situations, activities, and situations where issues of
right and wrong are addressed.
2. What is the difference between ethics and the law?
Law and ethics are not the same since not all legal issues are ethical and law and ethics
involve contradictions (something can be legal but not very ethical; Apartheid)
3. What is the core normative theories in Modernist Western thinking? What are the core
ideas of each?
Normative studies are about how we should behave
Consequentialist/goal-oriented theories/teleological (focus on the outcomes)
- ethical egoism -> prescribes that if the outcome is in the interest of the decision-maker
itself, the decision can been seen as moral (self-interest)
- utilitarianism -> prescribes that if the outcome is in the interest of everyone by delivering
the greatest common good for everybody (such as the society or the biggest group), the
decision can be seen as moral (pain/pleasure and cost/benefit analysis)
Principle-based theories/deontological (focus on the action itself and principle from where
it derived)
- ethics of duties -> prescribes that morality is not based on the outcome, but depends on the
duty and goodwill (principles) of rational persons. In other words, the (rational) principles,
that are coming from certain obligations that are dependent on the categorical imperative,
guide the morality of an individual
- rights and justice -> prescribes that morality is not based on the outcome or the categorical
imperative, but depends on fairness perceptions (everyone is getting what they deserve) in
terms of basic social rights such as the right to life, right to speak, right on property. In other
words, the ethics of justice deals with moral choices by choosing solutions that seems to
damage the fewest people based on fairness within populations.
4. What are alternative theories to Modernist Western normative theories described above?
- virtue ethics focused on the individual itself and the decision-maker living a good life as a
person based on characteristics and integrity
- feminist ethics focused on the social relationships and responsibilities (caring) of people
instead of moral abstract principles.
- discourse ethics focused on solving ethical conflicts through dialogue by open and
democratic debate
- post-modern ethics focused on emotional moral impulses towards others and moving away
from rationality
5. What is the difference between ethical absolutism, relativism and pluralism?
The difference between absolutism and relativism can be seen as a spectrum where
absolutism is on side, and relativism is on the other side. Ethical absolutism states that
morality is objective and rational determined and therefore can be universally applied,
whereas ethical relativism states that morality is context-dependent and subjective and
therefore cannot be applied universal. In the middle of the spectrum, there is the
additionally ethical pluralism that recognizes that the different values of both the absolutism
, and the relativism can be equally legitimate. So, pluralism nor favors one approach over
others.
6. What is a good leader?
According to the paper of Ciulla, a good leader is, although this can be contractionary and
difficult, both ethical and effective.
Ethics and the Future of Business – Fall 2023 – Reflection questions for session 2
1. What are the main elements of the (rational) ethical decision-making model?
The ethical decision-making model derives from the rationalist perspective (Schwartz 2016)
on ethical decision-making that assumes that a logic reasoning approach, in terms of
calculating what needs to be done, is prior to arriving an ethical judgement. This logic
reasoning approach before the ethical judgement includes four so-called stages:
1. Awareness: becoming aware of the ethical and/or moral issue
2. Judgement: the ethical judgement is made
3. Intent: the derivation of moral motivations and the establishing of the decision.
4. Behavior: the practical implementation of the decision
2. What are the key individual factors that affect ethical decision making?
- national and cultural characteristics: power distance, masculinity, power distance
- gender & age: demographic factors
- education & employment: business students are more self-interested
- moral imagination: sense of the moral consequences of their decisions
- psychological factors: *1) cognitive moral development by three levels; 1) self-interest and
punishments/rewards, 2) societal expectations, 3) autonomous (rights & justice principles)
2* locus of control; internals versus externals about the control of life
3. What are the key situational factors that affect decision making?
- issue related factors: moral intensity (the consideration of an ethical issue by magnitude of
consequences, social concensus, probability and concentration of effect) and moral framing
(the way an ethical issue is presented and mainly used to present unethical issues more
ethical)
- context-related factors: system of rewards (compromising on ethical standards for more
rewards such as sales targets), authority (compromising on ethical behavior because
someone with hierarchical power tells you to), bureaucracy, work roles, organizational
culture
4. What is an ethical dilemma?
An ethical dilemma is a situation in which someone has to choose between two or more
actions and that decision is experienced as uneasy since the options involve moral/ethical
aspects
5. What kind of biases do Banaji et al. 2003 identify and how do they suggest addressing
them?
- implicit prejudice bias: people are being led by stereotyping when judging about
someone’s qualities and abilities instead of real information
- bias that favors people like you: people tend to favor people that they know and the
people they know often are like them in terms of nationality, social class, race, employer
- bias that favors you (overclaiming): people tend to hold positive views about themselves
and consider themselves above average
- bias that favors who can benefit you: people are often affected by conflicting interests
when making unsound and unethical decisions.
1. What is morality, ethics, and an ethical theory?
Ethical theories are the ongoing discussion and study of morality (right or wrong) in different
situations from the perspective of a human-being.
Business ethics is the study of business situations, activities, and situations where issues of
right and wrong are addressed.
2. What is the difference between ethics and the law?
Law and ethics are not the same since not all legal issues are ethical and law and ethics
involve contradictions (something can be legal but not very ethical; Apartheid)
3. What is the core normative theories in Modernist Western thinking? What are the core
ideas of each?
Normative studies are about how we should behave
Consequentialist/goal-oriented theories/teleological (focus on the outcomes)
- ethical egoism -> prescribes that if the outcome is in the interest of the decision-maker
itself, the decision can been seen as moral (self-interest)
- utilitarianism -> prescribes that if the outcome is in the interest of everyone by delivering
the greatest common good for everybody (such as the society or the biggest group), the
decision can be seen as moral (pain/pleasure and cost/benefit analysis)
Principle-based theories/deontological (focus on the action itself and principle from where
it derived)
- ethics of duties -> prescribes that morality is not based on the outcome, but depends on the
duty and goodwill (principles) of rational persons. In other words, the (rational) principles,
that are coming from certain obligations that are dependent on the categorical imperative,
guide the morality of an individual
- rights and justice -> prescribes that morality is not based on the outcome or the categorical
imperative, but depends on fairness perceptions (everyone is getting what they deserve) in
terms of basic social rights such as the right to life, right to speak, right on property. In other
words, the ethics of justice deals with moral choices by choosing solutions that seems to
damage the fewest people based on fairness within populations.
4. What are alternative theories to Modernist Western normative theories described above?
- virtue ethics focused on the individual itself and the decision-maker living a good life as a
person based on characteristics and integrity
- feminist ethics focused on the social relationships and responsibilities (caring) of people
instead of moral abstract principles.
- discourse ethics focused on solving ethical conflicts through dialogue by open and
democratic debate
- post-modern ethics focused on emotional moral impulses towards others and moving away
from rationality
5. What is the difference between ethical absolutism, relativism and pluralism?
The difference between absolutism and relativism can be seen as a spectrum where
absolutism is on side, and relativism is on the other side. Ethical absolutism states that
morality is objective and rational determined and therefore can be universally applied,
whereas ethical relativism states that morality is context-dependent and subjective and
therefore cannot be applied universal. In the middle of the spectrum, there is the
additionally ethical pluralism that recognizes that the different values of both the absolutism
, and the relativism can be equally legitimate. So, pluralism nor favors one approach over
others.
6. What is a good leader?
According to the paper of Ciulla, a good leader is, although this can be contractionary and
difficult, both ethical and effective.
Ethics and the Future of Business – Fall 2023 – Reflection questions for session 2
1. What are the main elements of the (rational) ethical decision-making model?
The ethical decision-making model derives from the rationalist perspective (Schwartz 2016)
on ethical decision-making that assumes that a logic reasoning approach, in terms of
calculating what needs to be done, is prior to arriving an ethical judgement. This logic
reasoning approach before the ethical judgement includes four so-called stages:
1. Awareness: becoming aware of the ethical and/or moral issue
2. Judgement: the ethical judgement is made
3. Intent: the derivation of moral motivations and the establishing of the decision.
4. Behavior: the practical implementation of the decision
2. What are the key individual factors that affect ethical decision making?
- national and cultural characteristics: power distance, masculinity, power distance
- gender & age: demographic factors
- education & employment: business students are more self-interested
- moral imagination: sense of the moral consequences of their decisions
- psychological factors: *1) cognitive moral development by three levels; 1) self-interest and
punishments/rewards, 2) societal expectations, 3) autonomous (rights & justice principles)
2* locus of control; internals versus externals about the control of life
3. What are the key situational factors that affect decision making?
- issue related factors: moral intensity (the consideration of an ethical issue by magnitude of
consequences, social concensus, probability and concentration of effect) and moral framing
(the way an ethical issue is presented and mainly used to present unethical issues more
ethical)
- context-related factors: system of rewards (compromising on ethical standards for more
rewards such as sales targets), authority (compromising on ethical behavior because
someone with hierarchical power tells you to), bureaucracy, work roles, organizational
culture
4. What is an ethical dilemma?
An ethical dilemma is a situation in which someone has to choose between two or more
actions and that decision is experienced as uneasy since the options involve moral/ethical
aspects
5. What kind of biases do Banaji et al. 2003 identify and how do they suggest addressing
them?
- implicit prejudice bias: people are being led by stereotyping when judging about
someone’s qualities and abilities instead of real information
- bias that favors people like you: people tend to favor people that they know and the
people they know often are like them in terms of nationality, social class, race, employer
- bias that favors you (overclaiming): people tend to hold positive views about themselves
and consider themselves above average
- bias that favors who can benefit you: people are often affected by conflicting interests
when making unsound and unethical decisions.
